^^■f9V^^3^^^^-^.n^^gp^R>~ > ,^«^ a fV 



■ 



Chap. 



ALDEN'S 



INTRODUCTION 



TO THE USB OP THE 



EI6L!5R LANGUAGE, 



feratmu} mtt I^ijoro tmu&t *&♦ 



PUBLISHED B^ r 

POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO,, 

53 & 55 JOHN STREET, 

NEW YORK. 



8 






r 



} LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. J 



{fa (rt£h 



J UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J 



/*" 



AN 



INTRODUCTION 



TO THE USE OF THE 



English Language, 



Grammar and Rhetoric combined. 



Joseph Alden, D.D., LL.D., 

President of New York State Normal School, 

AUTHOR OF 

'Science of Government," "Elements of Intellectual Philosophy," "Christian 

Ethics," " Hand Book for Sunday School Teachers," etc. 



PUBLISHED BY 

POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO., 

53 and 55 John Street, 
NEW YORK. 









TEnu 



Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by 

JOSEPH ALDEN, D.D., LL.D., 

in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



Electrotyped by v 
J. M. ARMSTRONG, 

Philadelphia. 



PREFACE. 



THE study of Grammar and Rhetoric should lead the student 
to speak and to write good English. This result is not al- 
ways reached. Many spend a large amount of time in the study 
of Grammar, and acquire a good degree of skill in technical 
parsing and in formal analysis, without correcting their habits 
of inaccurate expression. 

If the study of the English language does not exert habit- 
ually a controlling influence over the student in his use of the 
language, it is of little use. The object to be gained is the 
habit of using the language correctly and skilfully. Defini- 
tions, distinctions, and rules, are useful only as they promote 
this end. 

The design of this book is to lead the young student to ob- 
serve the elementary facts of the language, and to apply them 
in practice. There is a natural order in which elementary facts 
should be learned. Attention has been given to that order in 
the construction and arrangement of the following chapters. 

The facts to which the attention of the student is called, are 
few in comparison with the number found in treatises on Gram- 
mar. Those are given which are necessary to an intelligent 
entrance upon the correct use of the language. It is a mistake 
to present to the young student, at the outset, an exhaustive 
discussion of any topic. 

By observing and applying in practice the facts contained in 
this work, the student will form in his mind a nucleus for ac- 
cretion from further observations. Hence, the work is not de- 
signed to supersede treatises on grammar, but to put the mind 
of the student in a condition to use them to advantage. 

Technical terms have, for the most part, been avoided, that 
the attention of the student may be fixed on the truth to be seen. 
When technical terms and formulas are made too prominent, 
they may engross too much of the student's attention. The 
student may keep a formula in mind, and strive to make the 



PREFACE. 

facts conform to it, instead of giving his undivided attention to 
the facts, and thus clearly perceiving them and their relations. 

The author has aimed to elicit thought on the part of the 
student at every step of his progress. Things which he sees 
for himself, and not those which are told to him, constitute the 
student's real knowledge. No interest is felt in a study when 
no thinking is required. The interest felt in a study will be 
proportioned to the right exercise of mind put forth — not to the 
number of facts committed to memory. 

Every exercise required in this manual is an exercise in com- 
position— not an exercise in giving form to sentences. Inven- 
tion is required, but not beyond the capacity of the young 
student. He is required not to cast sentence-moulds, but to ex- 
press thought. 

The questions given are designed to lead the student to see 
the truth for himself. Having seen it, he should be required 
to express it accurately. Every recitation should be an exercise 
in accurate oral expression. 

In some cases answers have been given to questions. This 
would not have been done, could the author have felt sure that 
the book would be used only by well trained teachers. Such 
teachers will not confine themselves to the text-book. They 
will use it in such a manner as to combine the advantages of 
oral and of text-book instruction. 

The author begs leave to remind the teachers who may use 
his work, that the vocabulary of the young student is very 
limited ; hence their instructions may not be understood. Great 
care should be taken to have the student understand the mean- 
ing of every word in the lesson, and of every word uttered by 
the teacher. 

It is proper to add that in the composition and correction of 
this work, very valuable aid has been rendered by Miss Amelia 
D. Alden, teacher of Rhetoric and English Literature. A con- 
siderable portion of the part pertaining to Rhetoric was written 

by her. 

JOSEPH ALDEN. 

New York State Normal School, 
May 20, 1875. 



CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER I. PAGE 
Sentences 9 

CHAPTER II. 
Nouns and Verbs 11 

CHAPTER III. 
Classes of Nouns 13 

CHAPTER IV. 
Article and Adjective ,,... 15 

CHAPTER V. 
Comparison of Adjectives 17 

CHAPTER VI. 
Number 20 

CHAPTER VII 
Number. — Continued 21 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Case 24 

CHAPTER IX. 
Personal Pronouns 27 

CHAPTER X. 
Relative Pronouns 30 

CHAPTER XI. 
Gender 32 

CHAPTER XII. 
Verbs Transitive and Intransitive 36 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Tenses 37 

CHAPTER XIV. 
Mode 39 

CHAPTER XV. 

Active and Passive voices..... 43 

5 



6 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE XVI page 
Verbs, Regular, Irregular, and Defective 44 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Conjugation of the verb to be 45 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Conjugation of an Irregular Verb :. 48 

CHAPTER XIX. 
List of Irregular Verbs 53 

CHAPTER XX. 
Conjugation of a Regular Verb.. 58 

CHAPTER XXI. 
Conjugation of a Verb in the Progressive form... 63 

CHAPTER XXII. 
Auxiliary Verbs 66 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
Participles 67 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
Adverbs 69 

CHAPTER XXV. 
Prepositions 71 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
Conjunctions 72 

CHAPTER XXVII. 
Interjections 74 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
Analysis and Parsing 74 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
Parsing. — Continued 79 

CHAPTER XXX. 
Different Offices of the same word 82 

CHAPTER XXXI. 
Phrases and Clauses 85 



CONTENTS. 7 

CHAPTER XXXII. page 
Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences 87 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
Punctuation 89 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Punctuation:. — Continued 92 

CHAPTER XXXV. 
Punctuation. — Continued 98 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 
Capitals 104 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 
Meaning of Words 105 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
Synonymous Words 108 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 
Thought Analysis 110 

CHAPTER XL. 
Comparison or Simile 112 

CHAPTER XLI. 
Comparison or Simile.— Continued 115 

CHAPTER XLIL 
Metaphor 118 

CHAPTER XLIII. 
Metaphor. — Continued 121 

CHAPTER XLIV. 
Personification 123 

CHAPTER XLV. 
Metonymy and Synecdoche 125 

CHAPTER XL VI. 
Parable, Allegory, Fable 127 

CHAPTER XLVII. 
Irony 128 



<5 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK XLV1II. page 
Allusion 130 

CHAPTER XLIX. 
Various Figures 132 

CHAPTER L. 
Apostrophe, Interrogation, Vision 135 

CHAPTER LI. 
Antithesis, Climax, Hyperbole 137 

CHAPTER LII. 
Tautology, Euphemism, Alliteration 140 

CHAPTER LIIL 
Invention e 141 

CHAPTER LIV. 
Clearness 145 

CHAPTER LV. 
Clp:arness. — Continued 147 

CHAPTER LVI. 
Structure of Sentences 150 

CHAPTER LVIL 
Force 157 

CHAPTER LVIII. 
Beauty 159 

CHAPTER LIX. 
Style 162 

CHAPTER LX. 
How to Compose 164 

CHAPTER LXI. 
Criticism 168 

CHAPTER LXIL 
The Poet 184 

CHAPTER LXIII. 
Source of Rules 190 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER I. 
SENTENCES. 



1 . The fire burns brightly. 

2. The peach-tree is in blossom. 

3. Rain waters the earth. 

4. The mountain is covered with snow. 



These are sentences. They are composed of words. 
"What do words express ? 

If you write a number of words on separate pieces of 
paper, and throw those pieces of paper into a hat, and then 
take them out, one by one, and place them one after another 
as you take them out, will they form a sentence ? 

Why not? 

You have five sentences before you. Let each member 
of the class tell what a sentence is. 

You see that each sentence conveys a meaning — expresses 
a thought. What is a sentence ? 

A. A sentence is the expression in words of a thought. 

Can you express a thought without using words? 

Give an example. 

Can you express all your thoughts without using words ? 

9 



10 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is spoken of in sentence No. 1 ? 

What is said about it ? 

What is spoken of in sentence No. 2 ? 

What is said about it ? 

What is spoken of in sentence No. 3 ? 

What is said about it ? 

What is spoken of in sentence No. 4? 

What is said about it ? 

What is spoken of in sentence No. 5 ? 

What is said about it ? 

You observe that each of these sentences has two parts : 
the one mentions what is spoken of; the other tells what is 
said about it. 

That which mentions what is spoken of, is called the 
subject. 

That which is said about it, is called the predicate. 

What is the subject in each of these sentences ? 

What is the predicate in each sentence ? 

Compose sentences having the following words for subjects : 
1. Water. 2. Birds. 3. Gold. 4. Chestnuts. 5. Angels. 

Compose sentences having the following words in the 
predicate: 1. Honorable. 2. Wise. 3. Industrious. 4. Feeble. 
5. Truthful. 

Compose a sentence having two or more words in the sub- 
ject, and two or more words in the predicate. 

What is a sentence ? 

Of what two parts is a sentence composed ? 

What is the subject of a sentence ? 

What is the predicate of a sentence ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 11 

CHAPTER II. 
NOUNS AND VERBS. 

1. John writes well. 

2. The violet blooms in the spring. 

3. The volcano throws out lava. 

4. The ship sails on the ocean. 

"What is John the name of ? 

What is violet the name of? 

"What is volcano the name of? 

What is ship the name of? 

Name the subject in each sentence. 

You find that the subject, or the principal word of the 
subject of every sentence, is the name of something. 

Every word which is the name of something, is called a 
noun. 

Mention five nouns. In order to do this, think of five 
things, and give their names. 

Point out all the nouns in the sentences at the beginning 
of this chapter. 

"What is a noun ? 

1. Fish swim. 

2. Men think. 

3. Dogs bark. 

4. Birds fly. 

Mention the nouns in these sentences. 
Do fish do anything when they swim ? 
Do men do anything when they think ? 
Do dogs do anything when they bark ? 
Do birds do anything when they fly ? 



12 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The words swim, jthink, bark, and fly, express action. 
Such words are called verbs. 
How many kinds of words have we considered ? 
What is one kind called ? 
What is the other kind called ? 
The different kinds of words are called parts of speech. 

1. The teacher loves his pupils. 

2. Henry ran to the river. 

3. The weary traveller sleeps sweetly. 

4. The rabbit hides in the wood. 

Name the subject and the predicate of each sentence. 

Name the nouns in each predicate. 

Name the verbs in each predicate. 

What part of speech is the principal word in the subject 
of a sentence ? 

What part of speech is the principal word in the predi- 
cate of a sentence ? 

What two parts of speech must every sentence contain ? 

A verb asserts or affirms something. 

What is asserted in sentence No. 1 ? 

What word makes the assertion ? 

What word makes the assertion in sentence No. 2 ? In 
sentence No. 3 ? In sentence No. 4 ? 

If you were to strike out those words, what would become 
of the sentences ? 

No assertion, affirmation, or statement, can be made with- 
out a verb. 

How many words are necessary to form a sentence? 

If a sentence is composed of two words, what parts of 
speech must those words be ? 

What are verbs ? 

A. Words which assert something. 

Compose sentences containing the following verbs : read, 
forget, raise, deliver. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 13 

CHAPTER III. 
CLASSES OF JVOUNS. 

1. John Howard was a philanthropist. 

2. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. 

3. The Hudson is a beautiful river. 

A noun is the name of something. 

Of what is John Howard the name ? 

Of what is Boston the name ? 

Of what is Massachusetts the name ? 

Of what is Hudson the name ? 

Those four words are names of individual things. Names 
of individual things are individual or particular terms ; when 
spoken of as nouns, they are called proper nouns. 
Proper, when thus used, means belonging to an individual. 

A proper noun is the name of an c individual person or 
thing. 

What is river the name of? 

Is it the name of any particular stream ? 

What are all streams of a certain size called ? 

River, then, is a word applied to a great many objects of 
the same kind — to a class of objects. Names of classes of 
objects are general terms ; when spoken of as nouns, they are 
called common nouns. 

What two kinds of terms have we considered ? 

What kind of nouns are particular terms ? 

What kind of nouns are general terms? 

What difference between an individual, a particular term, 
and a proper noun ? 

What difference between a general term and a common 
noun? 

Compose a sentence having a proper noun for a subject. 

Compose a sentence having a common noun for a subject. 
2 



14 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1. Congress will adjourn soon. 

2. The army is disbanded. 

3. The Society for the Promotion of Agricul- 
ture is flourishing. 

What is Congress the name of? 

Can the term be applied to one man ? 

How many persons does it take to make a Congress ? 

What is army the name of? 

Does it take more than one soldier to make an army? 

What is society the name of? 

The words Congress, army, society, imply a collection of 
individuals. These words are called collective nouns. 

He had a flock of sheep and a swarm of bees ; — what kind 
of noun is flock? swarm? 

1. Honesty is respected. 

2. The sun exceeds the moon in brightness. 

3. Benevolence is approved by all. 

Did you ever see honesty ? 

What did it look like? 

You have seen honest men: to what did their honesty 
belong— their hair or their conduct ? 

There is no such thing as honesty apart from conduct. 
When you say you have seen honesty, you mean that you 
have seen honest conduct — honest actions. 

Is there any such thing as brightness apart from bright 
objects ? 

Is there any such thing as benevolence, apart from the 
actions of moral beings ? 

Honesty, brightness, and benevolence,a.re qualities considered 
apart from the objects to which they belong. 

When we thus, in thought, separate qualities from their 
objects, and give those qualities names, those names are 
called abstract nouns. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 15 

What is an abstract noun ? 

What is a common noun ? 

What is a proper noun ? 

What is a collective noun ? 

What is a verbal noun ? 

A. When some part or form of a verb is used as a noun, 
it is called a verbal noun. 

Classes more or less numerous may be formed of nouns by 
putting together those which resemble one another in certain 
particulars. 



CHAPTER IV. 
ARTICLE AND ABJECTIVE. 

1. A boy is climbing the apple tree. 

2. The boy has gone home. 

3. A year is a long period of time. 

4. An hour is a short period of time. 

5. An earnest man is generally a successful 
man. 

6. A high hill is before us. 

When do we say a boy f and when do we say the boy t 

A. We say a boy when no particular boy is meant. We 
say the boy when some particular boy is meant. 

Wherein do the words a year express a different idea 
from the words the year ? 

A and the are called articles, A is called the in- 
definite article ; the is called the definite article. 
Can you tell why they are so called ? 

An is used instead of a, before words beginning with a 
vowel or a silent h, 



16 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Name the vowel letters. 

Why is an used in sentences No. 4 and 5 ? 

Would it be correct to say a eagle ? Why not ? 

Would it be correct to say an high hill ? Why not ? 

Compose sentences containing the indefinite article with 
the nouns camp, city, harbor. 

Compose sentences containing the definite article with the 
same nouns, 

Some grammarians call a and the adjectives. It is of little 
consequence what they are called, provided they are used 
correctly. 

1. The good boy obeys his parents. 

2. A strong wind is blowing. 

3. The high mountain can be seen from a great 
distance. 

4. A beautiful flower gives pleasure. 

What is the subject, and what is the predicate of sentence 
No. 1? 

What words compose the subject ? 

What words compose the predicate ? 

What part of speech is the t 

What part of speech is boy ? 

What is the office of the word good f that is, what does it 
tell? 

What is the subject and the predicate in sentence No. 2 ? 

What words constitute the subject ? 

What part of speech is a f 

What part of speech is wind ? 

What is the office of the word strong ? 

W T hat is the subject and the predicate of sentence No. 3? 

What words constitute the subject ? 

What part of speech is mountain t 

What is the office of the word high f 

What is the office of the word beautiful in sentence No. 4? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 17 

Did you ever see a good ? 

Did you ever see a high ? 

Are good and high names of things ? 

What do they express ? 

A. Facts pertaining to some things. 

Did you ever see a good boy f 

Did you ever see a high steeple ? 

Words of this kind are always used with nouns — are 
added to nouns, and are called adjectives. 

What kind of words are called adjectives ? 

Name all the adjectives in the subjects of sentences No. 1, 
2, 3, 4. 

Compose sentences having the adjectives hind, avaricious, 
intelligent, noble, brilliant, in the subject or in the predicate. 



CHAPTER V. 
COMPABISOM OF ADJECTIVES. 

Suppose you are speaking of a hind man, and wish to 
speak of one who exceeds him in kindness. If you call the 
one kind, what will you call the other? 

W T hat will you call one superior to both in kindness ? 

Suppose there are three objects with different degrees of 
redness: you call one red; what will you callthe one that 
is superior to it in redness ? 

What will you call the one that is superior to both ? 

Suppose there are three men with different degrees of 
wisdom : you call one wise ; what will you call one su- 
perior to him in wisdom ? 

What will you call one superior to both ? 

These three different forms of an adjective are called 
degrees of comparison. 

B 



18 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

They are called the positive, the comparative, 
and the superlative degrees. 

An adjective is said to be compared when these forms are 
named. 

Make a rule for comparing adjectives after this manner. 

Compose a sentence with the adjective lovely in the posi- 
tive degree. 

Compose a sentence having the adjective fine in the com- 
parative degree. 

Compose a sentence having the adjective sweet in the su- 
perlative degree. 

'You speak of a man as righteous, and you wish to speak 
of one superior to him in righteousness ; what expression 
will you use ? 

You wish to speak of one as righteous in the highest 
degree ; what expression will you use ? 

What would you call an object excelling another in 
beauty ? 

What would you call an object beautiful in the highest 
degree ? 

Compare excellent, vicious, admirable, suitable, regular, elegant. 

Make a rule for comparing adjectives after this manner. 

You speak of a good man. If you wish to speak of one 
superior to him in goodness, what word will you use ? 

Suppose you wish to speak of one superior to both in 
goodness ; what word will you use ? 

In comparing good, do you follow either of the rules you 
have made ? 

There are a number of adjectives that are irregular in 
their comparison, that is, respecting which no rule can be 
made ; such as, 

Little, Less, Least. 

Many, More, Most. 

Bad, Worse, Worst. 

Far, Farther, Farthest. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 19 

Some adjectives have no positive degree ; such as, 
JPos. Comp. Super. 

Upper, Uppermost. 

Further, Furthest. 

Nether, Nethermost. 

Some adjectives have neither the positive nor the super- 
lative degree: 

JPos. Comp. Super, 

Junior. 

Senior. 

Superior. ■ 

Inferior. 



Compose sentences containing these four adjectives. 

1. The school has one teacher. 

2. The class in arithmetic contains twelve boys. 

3. Two hundred sheep were sold in market. 

4. The first class will read Milton. 

5. The fourth tree in the row is a Norway 
Pine. 

What part of speech is one? 
To what noun does it belong ? 
What part of speech is twelve t 
To what noun does it belong ? 
What part of speech is two hundred t 
To what noun does it belong ? 

The adjectives one, two, three, four, etc., are called nu- 
merals. 

What part of speech is first ? 
To what noun does it belong ? 
What part of speech is fourth ? 
To what noun does it belong ? 



20 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The adjectives first, second, third, fourth, etc., are called 
ordinals. 

Adjectives may be divided into classes according to their 
meaning. It is not necessary to classify them in order to 
know their meaning and how to use them. The pupil 
should be required to name them from the office which they 
perform. 



CHAPTER VI. 
NUMBER. 



When you speak of more than one boy, what do you say ? 

When you speak of more than one barrel ? 

Of more than one house ? 

Of more than one farm ? 

Of more than one tree ? 

Of more than one book ? 

How does the form of a word thus used in speaking of 
more than one, differ from the form used in speaking of one ? 

The form used in speaking of one thing, is called the 
singular ; the word used is said to be in the singular 
number. 

The form used in speaking of more than one, is called the 
plural; the word used is said to be in the plural 
number. 

How is the plural formed from the singular in the words 
boy, barrel, house, farm, tree and book f 

The rule you have given applies to many nouns, but not 
to all. 

What do you say when you speak of more than one fox ? 

Of more than one brush ? 

Of more than one box ? 

Of more than one match ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 21 

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and 
in similar nouns ? 

What do you say when you speak of more than one wife ? 

Of more than one life ? 

Of more than one leaf? 

Of more than one wolf ? 

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and 
in similar nouns ? 

What do you say when you speak of more than one lily ? 

Of more than one cherry ? 

Of more than one berry ? 

Of more than* one fancy ? 

How is the plural formed from the singular in these, and 
in similar nouns ? 

What do you say when you speak of more than one ox ? 

Of more than one man ? 

Of more than one woman ? 

Of more than one child ? 

Of more than one foot ? 

Can you give a rule for forming the plural of these 
nouns — one that will apply to them all ? 

There are some nouns which do not belong to a class, 
and for which no general rule can be given. 



CHAPTER VII. 

NUMBER.- Continued. 

How many numbers has the English language ? 

What do you mean when you say that the English lan- 
guage has two numbers? 

A. That certain words have one form when a single thing 
is spoken of, and another form when more than a single 
thing is spoken of. 



22 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Compose sentences having gold, idleness, wisdom, in the 
singular number. 

Can you compose sentences having these words in the 
plural number ? Why not ? 

Some nouns, then, are used only in the singular number. 

Compose sentences containing the nouns annals, archives, 
assets, tidings. 

In what number are these nouns ? 

What is the singular of each ? 

Some nouns are used only in the plural number. 

Compose sentences having deer, sheep, cannon, in the plural. 

Compose sentences having the same words in the singular. 

Some nouns have the same form in both numbers. 

1. He is skilful in making indexes. 

2. He has not written the indices correctly. 

What is the singular of these words ? 

It has two plural forms. When should the first be used? 

A. When speaking of the contents of a book. 

When should the second form be used ? 

A. When speaking of an algebraic process. 

Some nouns have two plurals differing in signification. 

1 . He went with his brothers. 

2. He went with his brethren. 

What is the singular of these words ? 

When is brothers to be used ? 

A, When speaking of members of the same family. 

When is brethren to be used ? 

A, When speaking of members of the same church or 
association. 

Compose sentences having the compound words son-in-laiv, 
court-martial, man-trap, m the plural. 

In these words, one part performs the office of an adjec- 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



23 



tive, and the other, of a noun. The part performing the 
office of the noun receives the plural form. 

1. The Misses Brown are coming. 

2. The Miss Browns are coming. 

Which of these forms of expression is accurate ? 
A. Both are sanctioned by usage. 

Many words adopted from foreign languages retain the 
plural of those languages. 



Antithesis, 

Crisis, 

Hypothesis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Thesis, 

Alumnus, 

Analysis, 

Axis, 

Basis, 

Curriculum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Genus, 

Rostrum, 

Stimulus, 



Antitheses. 

Crises. 

Hypotheses. 

Parentheses. 

Phases. 

Phenomena. 

Theses. 

Alumni. 

Analyses. 

Axes. 

Bases. 

Curricula. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Genera. 

Rostra. 

Stimuli. 



Some foreign words, in addition to their own plural form, 
have the regular English form. 

Fulcrum, Fulcra, 

Formula, Formulae, 

Herbarium, Herbaria, 

Memorandum, Memoranda, 



Fulcrums. 
Formulas. 
Herbariums. 
Memorandums. 



24 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Some languages, the Greek and Hebrew, for example, 
have three numbers ; viz., singular, dual, and plural. The 
dual form is used when two persons or things are spoken of. 

From the facts to which attention has been called, it ap- 
pears that the English language has many irregularities 
with respect to number. These are to be learned by ob- 
serving the practice of good writers, and by referring to a 
good dictionary. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
CASE. 

1. James likes grapes. 

2. Birds build nests. 

3. Water allays thirst. 

4. Sin causes death. 

What is the subject of sentence No. 1 ? 

What is the predicate ? 

What part of speech is James? 

What part of speech is likes t 

What part of speech is grapes ? 

James is the subject of the sentence, and is also the sub- 
ject of the verb. You know that the principal word in the 
subject of a sentence is a noun ; and that a noun, or a word 
used as a noun, is the subject of the verb in the sentence. 

What is the verb in sentence No. 2? 

What noun is the subject of that verb ? 

What is the verb in sentence No. 3 ? 

What noun is the subject of that verb ? 

What is the verb in sentence No. 4 ? 

What is the subject of causes ? 

A noun, when it is the subject of the verb, it said to be 
in the nominative ease. In what case is James? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 25 

In what case is birds ? 

In what case is water ? 

In what case is sin ? 

What part of speech is grapes t 

With what word in the sentence is it closely connected ? 
What is affirmed of James f 

A. That he likes grapes. 

What does the word grapes tell ? 

A. It tells what James likes. 

The word grapes is the object of the verb like. 

What part of speech is nests f 

Of what verb is it the object ? 

What part of speech is thirst f 

Of what verb is it the object ? 

What part of speech is death t 

Of what verb is it the object ? 

When a noun is the object of a verb, it is said to be in 
the objective case. 

In what case is grapes f nests ? thirst ? death ? 

Name the subject and the object of the verb in each of 
the sentences. 

Name the nominative and the objective case in each sen- 
tence. 

1 . "Washington conquered Cornwallis. 

2. The general commands the army. 

3. Lightning struck the tree. 

In what case are the words Washington, general, and light- 
ning ? Why ? 

In what case are the words Cornwallis, army, and tree ? 
Why ? 

When are nouns in the nominative case ? 

When are nouns in the objective case ? 

Have nouns the same forms in the nominative and in 
the objective case ? 



26 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

How, then, can you tell when a noun is in the nomina- 
tive, and when it is in the objective case ? 

A. The meaning of the sentence will always show what is 
the subject, and what is the object of the verb. 

Compose sentences having the following verbs with nouns 
in the nominative and in the objective case : kill, save, 
defend, purchase. 

1. John's horse broke the carriage. 

2. The king's palace is beautiful. 

3. A child's hat fell overboard. 

4. The farmer's corn is ripe. 

"What is the subject of the verb broke f 

What case is horse in ? 

What part of speech is John's ? 

Is John's in the nominative case ? Why not ? 

Is it in the objective case? Why not ? 

John's is a noun : it is neither in the nominative nor in 
the objective case. Whose was the horse ? 

Suppose instead of saying John's horse, you say John 
horse : would you convey the idea that the horse belonged to 
John ? 

By saying John's horse, you tell whose horse broke the 
carriage. John's is a noun in the possessive case, be- 
cause it denotes possession. 

What case is king's in ? Why ? 

What case is child's in ? Why ? 

What case is farmer's in ? Why ? 

How does the possessive case differ in form from the nom- 
inative and the objective ? 

How many cases have nouns ? 

In what case is the subject of the verb ? 

In what case is the object of the verb ? 

In what case is the noun denoting possession ? 

Compose sentences having the following words in the 
possessive case : bird, king, ivater, j 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 27 

CHAPTER IX. 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. William went' to New York. He was 
much pleased with what he saw there. 

2. Miss Mary is beautiful. She is much admired. 

3. This stone is large. It is very heavy. 

4. The people heard the news. They were 
greatly excited. 

Tell what the words he, she, it, ive, and they, are used in- 
stead of, in these sentences. 

What part of speech are William, Mary, stone, and people ? 

The words he, she, it, are used in the place of nouns, and 
are called pronouns. 

What are pronouns ? 

Can we do without pronouns ? 

Express the thought contained in each of these sentences, 
without using pronouns. 

What advantage is there in using pronouns? A man is 
addressing a large audience, and says: "You are citizens 
of the United States." What would he have to do, in order 
to express that thought without using the pronoun you f 

A. He would have to name all the citizens present. 

You is used in the place of a great number of names. 
Pronouns thus enable us to practice a sort of short-hand 
speaking. They also enable us to avoid repeating too fre- 
quently the same word. 

Of how many do you speak when you use the word If 

Of how many, when you use the words thou or you, he, 
she, it ? 

In what number are those words ? 

Of how many do you speak when you use the words ive, 
ye or you, they f 



28 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Of what number are those words ? 
Of how many numbers are nouns ? 
Of how many numbers are pronouns ? 

1. I am a student. 

2. A bear chased Albert, and caught Albert. 

3. Mrs. Green saw Ellen, and called Ellen. 

4. This is Joseph's coat. 

What part of speech is It 

It is the subject of the verb am. In what case is it ? 

In what case is Albert after the verb caught t 

What pronoun can you put in the place of Albert f 

The sentence would then read, " A bear chased Albert, 
and caught him." Him is the object of the verb caught ; 
what case is it in ? 

Put a pronoun in the place of Ellen after called. 

What case is her in ? 

Suppose we say, "This is his coat," instead of saying 
"This is Joseph's coat;" his denotes possession. What 
case is it in ? 

How many cases have nouns ? 

How many cases have pronouns ? 

A noun is said to be declined, when the cases are given in 
both numbers. 



Sing* Flu. 


Sing. 


piu. 


Nom. King, Kings, 


Nom. Boy, 


Boys, 


Poss. King's, Kings', 


Poss. Boy's, 


Boys', 


Obj. King, Kings. 


Obj. Boy, 


Boys. 


Personal pronouns are thus declined : 




Singular. 


Plural. 




Nom. I, 


We, 




Poss. My or Mine, 


Our or Ours, 




Obj. Me. 


Us. 





ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29 

Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Thou, Ye or You, 

Poss. Thy or Thine. Your or Yours, 

Obj. Thee. You. 

Norn. He, They, 

Poss. His, Their or Theirs, 

Obj. Him. Them. 

Nom. She, They, 

Poss. Her or Hers, Their or Theirs, 

Obj. Her. Them. 

Nom. It, They, 

Poss. Its, Their or Theirs, 

Obj. It. Them. 

You see that the different cases of the pronouns have 
different forms. Is this true with respect to nouns ? 

Compose a sentence having I in the possessive case, sin- 
gular number. 

Compose a sentence having he in thenominative case, plural. 

Compose a sentence having it in the possessive case, plural. 

1. I am reading a book. 

2. Thou art, or you are a wise man. 

3. He runs well. 

4. We love our country. 

5. Ye are Americans. 

6. They will come home. 

The person speaking is said to be the first person. 
The person spoken to is said to be the second person. 
The person spoken of is said to be the third person. 
Name the persons of the pronouns in these sentences. 
The pronouns /, thou, he, she, it, are called personal 
pronouns. 



30 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER X. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. The man who first saw the fish, caught it. 

2. The house which was built last year, is on 
fire. 

3. The dog that worried the sheep, has been 
shot. 

What man caught the fish ? 

"What does who refer to ? 

Of what verb is who the subject ? 

What case is it in ? 

What does which refer to ? 

Of what verb is it the subject ? 

What case is it in ? 

What does that refer to ? 

What case is it in ? Why ? 

Is it proper to say the man ivhich saw ? 

What should you say ? 

Who refers to persons, and ivhich to things. 

Is it proper to say the man that built the house ? 

What does that refer to ? 

Is it proper to say the house that was built ? 

What does that refer to J 

In one sentence it refers to a person, and in the other, to a 
thing. 

Who refers to persons only. 

Which refers to things only. 

That refers to persons or to things. 

What is a relative pronoun ? 

A relative pronoun is a word used to represent a 
preceding noun or pronoun, and to connect with it a depend- 
ent sentence. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 31 

What is the antecedent of a relative pronoun ? 
A. It is the noun or pronoun to which the relative 
pronoun refers. 

Who and which are declined thus : 

Norn. Who, Nora. Which, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom, Obj. Which. 

Compose three sentences having who in the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective cases. 

Compose three sentences having which in the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective cases. 

Compose two sentences having that in the nominative and 
the objective cases. Does the form of the pronoun differ in 
the nominative and in the objective case ? 

1. He foretold what would happen. 

2. I asked him to tell me what he had done. 

What word is the subject of the verb would happen? 

What case is it in ? 

What is the subject of the verb had done t 

What case is it in? 

What is the object of the verb had done f 

What case is it in ? 

Does it come before or after the verb ? 

W T here do we usually find the object of a verb? 

When you say, "man whom I love/' the object of the 
verb love is placed before it, 

The objective case of the relative pronoun is placed be- 
fore the verb. 

In what respects does the relative what differ from the rel- 
atives who, which, and that t 

Who, which, and that, refer to some word going before, 
which is called the antecedent ; what does not refer to any 
antecedent. 



32 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Express the thought contained in the sentence, "He gave 
me what I wanted," without using the word what. 
He gave me the thing which I wanted. 

1. Who is in the house ? 

2. Whom seek ye ? 

3. What is about to take place ? 

4. Which will you take ? 

When who, which, and what, are used in asking questions, 
they are called interrogative pronouns. 

The words whoever, whichever, whatever, whosoever, which- 
soever, and whatsoever, are called compound relative 
pronouns, and are used like what without antecedents. 

The word as is sometimes used as a relative pronoun. 



CHAPTER XI. 
GENDER. 

1. A MAN drives the horses. 

2. The woman teaches school. 

3. The boy has apples, 

4. A girl sweeps the room. 

5. John is wise. 

6. Mary is faithful. 

Tell what is the subject, and what is the predicate of each 
of these sentences. 

Tell what words each subject is composed of. 

Tell what each predicate is composed of. 

Tell what parts of speech each subject is composed of. 

Tell what parts of speech each predicate is composed of. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33 

All nouns denoting the male sex are said to be of the 
masculine gender. 

What nouns in these sentences are masculine ? 
All nouns denoting the female sex are said to be of the 
feminine gender. 

What nouns in these sentences are feminine ? 

1. Trees adorn a landscape. 

2. Meteors give a transient light. 

3. Education is a cause of national prosperity. 

Tell what parts of speech the subjects and predicates of 
these sentences are composed of. 

Are the nouns trees, meteors, and education, masculine or 
feminine ? 

Nouns which do not denote sex are neither masculine nor 
feminine. They are said to be of the neuter gender. 
Neuter means neither. To say that a noun is of the neuter 
gender, is to say that it is neither masculine nor feminine — 
that it has no relation to sex. 

Of what gender are the nouns wood, hay, water, wheat, love, 
and hatred f 

Of what gender are the nouns parent, child, teacher, singer f 

They may be either masculine or feminine. Words thus 
used are said to be of common gender. When a noun 
is said to be of the common gender, the meaning is that it 
may be either masculine or feminine, according as it is 
used. 

How can you tell whether a noun is masculine, feminine 
or neuter ? 

A. From its meaning. 

What nouns are masculine? Feminine? Neuter? 

What distinction does gender mark? 

What has it to do with things without sex ? 

What do you mean when you say that a noun is of the 
neuter gender ? Of the common gender ? 

C 



34 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1 . The sun moved on in his chariot of fire. 

2. The moon shed her mellow light. 

3. The ship went on her way. 

Of what gender is the pronoun his ? 

What does it refer to ? 

Has the sun sex ? 

"What gender is her f 

What does it refer to ? 

Has the moon sex ? 

Would it be proper to say, " The sun rode in her chariot/' 
and "The moon shed his beams ?" Why not ? 

A, The usage of the best writers requires us to use the 
masculine pronoun in connection with some nouns, and the 
feminine pronoun in connection with other nouns. 

No rule of universal application can be given in relation 
to the gender of pronouns referring to objects without sex. 
The example of good writers must be followed. 

Masculine and feminine pronouns are sometimes used in 
reference to animals, from the masculine or feminine qual- 
ities they are supposed to possess. Thus we say, " The tiger 
seizes his prey," and " The ringdove seeks her nest." 



JMTasc, 


Fern, 


Actor, 


Actress. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 


Deacon, 


Deaconess. 


Heir, 


Heiress. 


Host; 


Hostess. 


Preceptor, 


Preceptress, 


Patron, 


Patroness. 


Poet, 


Poetess. 


Priest, 


Priestess. 



In these words, how is the feminine distinguished from 
the masculine ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 35 



Masc, 


Fern. 


Man-servant, 


Maid-servant. 


Male child, 


Female child. 


Peacock, 


Peahen. 


Mankind, 


Womankind. 


How is the feminine distin 


guished from the masculine in 


each of these words? 




A. By connecting another 


word with it. 


Masc. 


Fern, 


Bachelor, 


Maid. 


Boy, 


Girl. 


Husband, 


Wife. 


Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Father, 


Mother. 


Master, 


Mistress. 


King, 


Queen. 


Earl, 


Countess. 


Stag, 


; Hind. 



How is the feminine distinguished from the masculine in 
these words ? 

A. By different words. 

There are then three ways of distinguishing gender ; what 
are they ? 

A. 1. By difference of termination. 

2. By different words. 

3. By adding other words. 

The English language differs widely as to gender, from 
the Latin and Greek languages. In those languages, the 
gender is determined, not by sex, but by the termination of 
the word. Thus, the Latin word for sword is masculine be- 
cause it has the masculine termination, and the word for 
table is feminine because it has the feminine termination. 

In those languages, adjectives and participles have mas- 



36 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

culine, feminine, and neuter terminations. Thus, the adjec- 
tive good, when joined to a masculine noun, has one form ; 
when joined to a feminine noun, another form ; and when 
joined to a neuter noun, another form. Hence, in those 
languages, the gender of a word must be known before it can 
be used correctly in connection with other words. 

In the English language, gender is strictly the distinction 
of sex, and the different forms required are easily learned. 
In this respect, the English language is more simple and 
philosophical than the Latin and Greek. 



CHAPTEE XII. 



VERBS, TRANSITIVE AND INTRAN- 
SITIVE. 

1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 

2. A cannon ball destroyed the ship. 

3. The sun shines. 

4. The water flows. 

5. The eagle soars. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each sentence. 

Name the parts of speech in each sentence. 

"What is asserted in each sentence ? 

What word makes the assertion in each sentence ? 

In which sentences have the verbs objects? 

You have, then, two kinds of verbs : what are they ? 

Verbs which have an object are called transitive 
verbs. Point out the transitive verbs in the sentences. 

Verbs which do not have an object are called intransi- 
tive verbs. Point out the intransitive verbs. 

What is a transitive verb ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 37 

What is an intransitive verb ? 

Compose sentences containing the verbs, hear, smile, grow, 
deliver, repose. 

Point out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the 
sentences composed. 

1. The boy writes well. 

2. The boys write well. 

Of what number is the subject of sentence No. 1 ? 

Of what number is the subject of sentence No. 2? 

Why do you say writes in the first sentence, and write in 
the second ? 

A. The verb must be in the same number as its subject 
or its nominative case. 

What parts of speech have number ? 

A. Nouns, pronouns, verbs, and some adjectives. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
TENSES. 

1. The wind blows hard. 

2. The fields are green. 

3. Kindness makes friends. 

4. Guilt causes fear. 

Name the subject and the predicate in each sentence. 

Name the parts of speech in each subject and predicate. 

What time do the verbs in these sentences express ; the 
present, the past, or the future ? 

Verbs that express the present time are said to be in the 
present tense. 



38 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Compose sentences having the verbs live, declare, unfold, 
and imagine, in the present tense. 

1. The frost killed the corn. 

2. The Germans conquered France. 

What time do the verbs in these sentences express? 
Verbs which express past time are said to be in the past 
tense. 

Compose sentences having the verbs yield, discover, and 
waylay, in the past tense. 

1. The sun will set soon. 

2. He will return to-morrow. 

2. I shall not fail to keep my promise. 

What time do the verbs in these sentences express ? 

Compose sentences having the verbs admire, reconstruct, 
and conceal, in the future tense. 

How many tenses have we mentioned ? Name them. 

Construct sentences having ride, swim, and breathe, in the 
present tense. 

Construct sentences having fail, conquer, and live, in the 
past tense. 

Construct sentences having believe, chastise, and replenish, in 
the future tense. 

Suppose you, having previously dined, were asked to 
dinner, what would you say ? 

" I have dined." 

Why not say *' I dined." 

When you say, "I have dined," you mean that you 
dined, not yesterday, but to-day. You speak of dining as a 
past act ; but you have also a reference to the present time. 
Hence the form, "I have dined," is said to be in the 
prior-present tense. 

Construct sentences having the verbs hinder, unfold, and 
desert, in the prior-present tense. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 39 

Suppose you are asked, " Why did you not dine when 
Stephen did ?" and you reply, " I had dined," what time is 
expressed ? 

The form, " I had dined," expresses a past act as having 
been performed previous to another past act. Hence it is 
called the prior-past tense. 

Construct sentences having the verbs confess, help, and 
hear, in the prior-past tense. 

You say, " I shall have finished my task before night :" 
what two future events are mentioned ? 

The finishing your task, a future event, is mentioned as 
taking place* before another future event, the coming on of 
night. Hence the form, " I shall have finished," is said to 
be in the prior-future tense . 

Construct sentences having the verbs control, decide, and 
teach, in the prior-future tense. 

How many tenses have been mentioned ? 

How many tenses to express present time ? 

How many to express past time ? 

How many to express future time ? 

What are tenses ? 

A. Tenses are forms of the verb denoting the time men- 
tioned in the sentence. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
MODE. 



1. Samuel is in the meadow. 

2. The orange is a tropical fruit. 

3. The battle was fought on the plain. 

4. This bridge will be strong for many years. 



40 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is asserted of Samuel? Of the orange. Of the 
battle? Of the bridge? 

These are direct assertions. When a verb makes a direct 
assertion, it is said to be in the indicative mode. 

Construct sentences in the indicative, respecting Jiorses, 
books, trees, and mind. 

The term mode is from the Latin word modus. In 
grammar, it means the manner in which a thing is said. 

1. He may go. 

2. He can write. 

3. Robert may have killed the bear. 

4. The cattle might break down the fence. 

5. The door must be locked. 

These sentences contain assertions that it is possible or 
necessary that something be done : verbs thus used to ex- 
press the fact that some things are possible or necessary, are 
said to be in the potential mode. 

Construct sentences in the potential mode, respecting honey, 
ambition, war, and industry. 

The potential mode has four tenses: viz., present, 
prior-present, past, and prior-past. 

1. If I go, he will receive me. 

2. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

3. If I fall, I shall suffer pain. 

4. If I were a man, I would be a soldier. 

These sentences are made up of two parts, each part hav- 
ing a subject and a predicate. One part expresses a con- 
dition ; and the other, a consequence. 

Verbs used to express that which is conditional, are said 
to be in the subjunctive mode. 

Verbs in the subjunctive mode differ in form from verbs 



EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 41 

in the indicative mode in the present tense, and in the sin- 
gular number only, except the verb to be, which differs in 
the present and past tenses. 

Indicative Present, Subjunctive Present. 

I fall, If I fall, 

Thou fallest, If thou or you fall, 

He falls. If he fall. 

Ind. Pres, Sub. Pres. 

I am, We are, If I be, If we be, 

Thou art, You are, If you be, If you be, 

He is, They are. If he be, If they be. 

1 . Go to the river. 

2. Let them leave the room. 

3. Obey your parents. 

These sentences are commands. Verbs thus used to ex- 
press command, are said to be in the imperative mode. 

"What is the subject of the verb go? Some one is spoken 
to. In what person is the one spoken to ? 

What is the personal pronoun of the second person ? 

The subject of go, then, is either thou or you; hence the 
verb is in the second person. The same may be said of let 
and obey. 

Verbs in the imperative mode are found only in the 
present tense and the second person. 

Can you give a command in the past tense ? 

Can you give a command in a future tense ? 

When you say, " Leave town to-morrow," do you not ex- 
jjress future time ? 

If you leave out the word to-morrow, will the verb express 
future time ? 

Compose sentences having the verbs rule, consider, and 
declare,'ui the imperative mode. 



42 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1. I desire to read. 

2. He is anxious to escape from his enemies. 

3. He is said to have destroyed a large ship. 

4. It ought not to be. 

Verbs thus used with the preposition to, are said to be in 
the infinitive mode.* 

Verbs in the infinitive mode are used only in the present 
and the prior-present tenses. 

Compose sentences having the verbs cover, invite, and hear, 
in the infinitive present ; and the verbs love, hate, honor f in 
the infinitive prior-present. 

How many tenses in the indicative mode ? 

How many in the potential ? 

How many in the subjunctive? 

How many in the imperative? 

How many in the infinitive ? 

* In another place, the attention of the pupil will he called to the 
fact that to is sometimes omitted in the infinitive. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 43 



CHAPTER XV. 

ACTIVE AMD PASSIVE VOICES. 

1. The Gauls conquered Rome. 

2. The Germans conquered France. 

3. Rome was conquered by the Gauls. 

4. France was conquered by the Germans. 

Wherein do sentences No. 1 and 2 differ from sentences 
No. 3 and 4 ? 

A. They differ in the mode of expressing the same facts. 

What is the subject of sentence No. 1 ? 

In this sentence, the subjections, is represented as acting 
or having acted. The Gauls conquered. ' 

In the third sentence, the subject, is represented as acted 
upon : Rome was conquered. 

In sentence No. 2, the subject is represented as acting ; 
and in sentence No. 4, the subject is represented as acted 
upon. 

In sentences No. 1 and 2, the verbs are said to be in the 
active voice. When a verb represents its subject as acting, 
it is said to be in the active voice. 

When a verb represents its subject as being acted upon, it 
is said to be in the passive voice. 

The words Active voice and Passive voice, are used to ex- 
press different forms of the verb. 

Change into the passive voice; , 

1. The wind blew the tree down. 

2. Exposure to cold destroyed his health. 



44 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Change into the active form, 

1. The children were forsaken by the father. 

2. The landscape was concealed from me by 
smoke. * 

Compose sentences having the verbs resolve, sell, and poison, 
in the active voice. 

Compose sentences having the verbs bind, recover^ and gild, 
in the passive voice. 



CHAPTER XVI. 



VERBS REGULAR, IRREGULAR, AND 
DEFECTIVE. 

1. I love flowers. 

2. He studies Latin. 

3. The dog follows his master. 

What is the past tense of love ? 

What is the past tense of studies ? 

What is the past tense of follows ? 

What two letters are found at the end of the past tenses 
of these verbs ? 

Verbs that form the past tense in ed are called regular 
verbs. 

What is the past tense of line? 

The past tense of gain f 

The past tense of deliver ? 

What kind of verbs are they ? 

What is the past tense of run ? The past tense of break? 
of drink ? of grow ? of know ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 45 

These verbs do not have the past tense ending in ed. 
They are called irregular verbs. 

What is the past tense of bleed f bite f come f meet f sell ? 
sleep f 

What kind of verbs are they ? 

What part of speech is can, in the sentence, " He can do 
it?" 

What tense is it in ? 

What is the future tense of can f 

Is it proper to say, ""I shall can," or " I will can?" 

Is it proper to say, " I have must ?" or " I had could ?" 

Can, must, shall, and some other verbs, are not used in all 
the modes and tenses. Such verbs are called defective 
verbs. 

What are defective verbs ? 

How many kinds of verbs have we considered in this 
chapter? Name them. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR 
VERB, "TO BE." 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

First Person lam, We are, 

Second " (Thou art, f Ye are, 

t You are, ( You are, 

Third " He is, They are. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I have been, We have been, 

2 f Thou hast been, f Ye have been, 

\ You have been, \ You have been, 
3. He has been. Thev have been. 



46 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, We were, 

2 f Thou wast, f Ye were, 

* t You were, X You were, 

3. He was. They were. 

PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

1. I had been, We had been, 

o f Thou hadst been, J Ye had been, 

' \ You had been, \ You had been, 
3. He had been. They had been. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall be, We shall be, 

9 f Thou wilt be, J Ye will be, 

z * \ You will be, t You will be, 
3. He will be. They will be. 

PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 

2 ( Thou wilt have been, f Ye will have been, 

'* \ You will have been, \ You will have been, 
3. He will have been. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be, We may be, 

o f Thou mayst be, f Ye may be, 

X You may be, \ You may be, 
3. He may be. They may be. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may have been, We may have been, 

o f Thou mayst have been, f Ye may have been, 

X You may have been, I. You may have been, 
3. He may have been. They may have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might be, We might be, 

2 f Thou mightst be, f Ye might be, 

" \ You might be, X You might be, 
3. He might be. They might be. 



EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 47 

PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, "We might have been, 

f Thou mightst have been, f Ye might have been, 

X You might have been, \ You might have been, 

3. He might have been. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I be, If we be, 

2 f If thou be, f If ye be, 

\ If you "be, \ If you be, 
3. If he be. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were, If we were, 

2 f If thou wert, f If ye were, 

' \ If you were, \ If you were, 
3. If he were. If they were. 

IMPEKATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

o T Be thou, or f Be ye, or Do ye be, 

" \ Do thou be. \ Be you, or Do you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, To be. 

Prior-Present Tense, To have been. 

PABTICIPLES. 

Present, Bem#. 

Past, Been. 

Compound,... erf Having been. 



48 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



CONJUGATION OF AN IRREGULAR 
VERB. 

Active Voice. Passive Voice. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



1. I forsake, 

o f Thou forsakest, 

* \ You forsake, 
3. He forsakes. 

1. We forsake, 
o f Ye forsake, 

' \ You forsake, 
3. They forsake. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

I am forsaken, 
f Thou art forsaken, 
X You are forsaken, 
He is forsaken. 

Plural. 

We are forsaken, 
f Ye are forsaken, 
\ You are forsaken, 
They are forsaken. 



PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 



1. I have forsaken, 
o f Thou hast forsaken, 
' \ You have forsaken, 
3. He has forsaken. 



We have forsaken, 
f Ye have forsaken, 
X You have forsaken, 

They have forsaken. 



Singular. 

I have been forsaken, 
/ Thou hast been forsaken, 
X You have been forsaken, 

He has been forsaken. 

Plural. 

We have been forsaken, 
J Ye have been forsaken, 
X You have been forsaken, 

They have been forsaken. 



1. I forsook, 

o f Thou forsookst, 

' X You forsook, 
3. He forsook. 



PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

I was forsaken, 
f Thou wast forsaken, 
C You were forsaken, 

He was forsaken. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



49 



1. We forsook, 
2 / Ye forsook, 
" \ You forsook, 
3. They forsook. 



Plural 

We were forsaken, 
/ Ye were forsaken, 
X You were forsaken, 

They were forsaken. 



PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 

I had forsaken, I had been forsaken, 

f Thou hadst forsaken, f Thou hadst been forsaken, ) 
X You had forsaken, 1 You had been forsaken, 

He had forsaken. He had been forsaken. 



We had forsaken, 
f Ye had forsaken, 
\ You had forsaken, 1 

They had forsaken. 



Plural. 

We had been forsaken, 
f Ye had been forsaken, 
X You had been forsaken, 
They had been forsaken. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



I shall forsake, 
f Thou wilt forsake, 
( You will forsake, 

He will forsake. 



We shall forsake, 
f Ye will forsake, 
X You will forsake, 

They will forsake. 



Singular. 

I shall be forsaken, 

f Thou wilt be forsaken, 

X You will be forsaken, 

He will be forsaken. 

Plural. 

We shall be forsaken, 
f Ye will be forsaken, 
X You will be forsaken, 
They will be forsaken. 



PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. 

I shall have forsaken, I shall have been forsaken, 
f Thou wilt have forsaken, f Thou wilt have been forsaken, 
t You will have forsaken, X You will have been forsaken, 

He will have forsaken. He will have been forsaken. 

Plural. 
We shall have forsaken, We shall have been forsaken, 
/ Ye will have forsaken, f Ye will have been forsaken, 
X You will have forsaken, X You will have been forsaken, 
They will have forsaken. They will have been forsaken. 
D 



50 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, 
1. I may forsake, I may be forsaken, 

9 f Thou mayst forsake, ( Thou mayst be forsaken, 

X You may forsake, \ You may be forsaken, 

3. He may forsake. He may be forsaken. 

Plural. 
1. We may forsake, We may be forsaken, 

2 f Ye may forsake, f Ye may be forsaken, 

\ You may forsake, \ You may be forsaken, 

3. They may forsake. They may be forsaken. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular, 

1. I may have forsaken, I may have been forsaken, 

f Thou mayst have for- fThou mayst have been for- 

2. -! saken, -j saken, 

(. You may have forsaken, [ You may have been forsaken, 

3. He may have forsaken. He may have been forsaken. 

Plural. 

1. We may have forsaken, We may have been forsaken. 
2 f Ye may have forsaken, f Ye may have been forsaken, 

* \ You may have forsaken, \ You may have been forsaken, 
3. They may have forsaken. They may have been forsaken. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I might forsake, I might be forsaken, 

9 f Thou mightst forsake, f Thou mightst be forsaken, 

' X You might forsake, X You might be forsaken, 
3. He might forsake. He might be forsaken. 

Plural. 
1. We might forsake, We might be forsaken, 

9 f Ye might forsake, / Ye might be forsaken, 

t You might forsake, \ You might be forsaken, 

3. They might forsake. They might be forsaken. 



EXGLISH LAXGUAG-E. 



51 



PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 



2. 



3. 



Singular. 
I might have forsaken, I might have been forsaken, 



Thou mightst have for- 
saken, 

You might have for- 
saken, 

He might have forsaken. 



' Thou mightst have been for- 
saken, 
You might have been for- 
saken, 
He might have been forsaken. 



Plural 
We might have forsaken, We might have been forsaken, 
( Ye might have forsaken, f Ye might have been forsaken, 
\ You might have for-^ You might have been for- 
( saken, ( saken, 

f They might have for- / They might have been for- 
\ saken. \ saken. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



1. If I forsake, 
2 f If thou forsake, 
'* \ If you forsake, 
3. If he forsake. 

1. If we forsake, 
o f If ye forsake, 
" X If y° u forsake, 
3. If they forsake. 



1. If I forsook, 
o f If thou forsook, 
" X If y° u forsook, 
3. If he forsook. 



If we forsook, 
f If ye forsook, 
X If you forsook, 

If they forsook. 



Singular. 

If I be forsaken, 
J If thou be forsaken, 
X If you be forsaken, 

If he be forsaken. 

Plural 

If we be forsaken, 
J If ye be forsaken, 
X If you be forsaken, 
If they be forsaken. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

If I were forsaken, 
f If thou wert forsaken, 
\ If you were forsaken, 
If he were forsaken. 

Plural 

If we were forsaken, 
f If ye were forsaken, 
X If you were forsaken, 
If they were forsaken. 



52 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

IMPEEATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

2 f Forsake thou, or f Be thou forsaken, or 

X Do thou forsake. \ Do thou be forsaken. 

Plural. 

o f Forsake ye, or J Be ye forsaken, or 

'* \ Do ye forsake. (. Do ye be forsaken. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

To forsake. To be forsaken. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

To have forsaken. To have been forsaken. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. 

Forsaking. Being forsaken. 

PAST. 

Having forsaken. Having been forsaken. 



EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 



53 



CHAPTER XIX. 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Some of the following verbs are both regular and irreg- 
ular. Such are marked r. 



Present. 


JPast. 


I*erf. participle. 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




was 


been 


Arise 




arose 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke R 


awaked 


Bake 




baked 


baken R 


Bear, to 


or ing forth 


bare or bore 


borne 


Bear, to 


carry 


bore or bare 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beaten or beat 


Begin 




began 


begun 


Bend 




bent R 


bent R 


Bereave 




bereft r 


bereft 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind 




bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build 




built r 


built R 


Burst 




burst 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


cast 


Catch 




caught R 


caught R 


Chide 




chid r 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


Cleave, 


to adhere 


clave R 


cleaved 


Cleave, 


to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed 


clad R 



54 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Present* 


Past* 


JPerf. participle. 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew R 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge, 


R dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt 


dealt 


Dig 


dug R 


dug R 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk, drank 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


dwelt R 


Eat 


ate or eat 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


gat or got 


gotten or got 


Gild 


gilt R 


gilt r 


Gird 


girt R 


girt r 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung R 


hung r 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove R 


hoven r 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



55 



Present. 


Bast. 


JPerf. jpartieiph 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit R 


knit r 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


. laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to let down, 


lay 


lain 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden r 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met . 


met 


Mow- 


mowed 


mown r 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit R 


quit R 


Eead 


read 


read 


Eend 


rent 


rent 


Eid 


rid 


rid 


Eide 


rode 


rode, ridden 


Eing 


rang or rung 


rung 


Eise 


rose 


risen 


Eive 


rived 


riven 


Eot 


rotted 


rotten r 


Eun 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn r 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen R 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven r 


Shear 


shore R 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone r 


shone R 


Show 


showed 


shown 



56 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Present. 


Fast. 


Shoe 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


Shred 


shred 


Shrink 


shrank or shrunk 


Shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang or sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


Sit 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


Sleep 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


Sling 


slang or slung 


Slink 


slank or slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


Smite 


smote 


Sow 


sowed 


Speak 


spoke or spake 


Speed 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


Spin 


spun 


Spit 


spat or spit 


Split 


split R 


Spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang or sprung 


Stand 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


Stick 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


Stride 


strode or strid 


Strike 


struck 


String 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


Strew 


strewed 


Strow 


strowed 


Swear 


swore or sware 


Sweat 


swet R 


Sweep 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


Swim 


swam or swum 


Swing 


swung or swang 


Take 


took 


Teach 


taught 



Terf. participle. 

shod 

shot 

shred 

shrunk 

shut 

sung 

sunk 

sat 

slain 

slept 

slidden, slid 

slung 

slunk 

slit or slitted 

smitten 

sown r 

spoken 

sped 

spent 

spilt R 

span 

spit or spitten 

split R 

spread 

sprung 

stood 

stolen 

stuck 

stung 

stridden 

struck oi" stricken 

strung 

striven 

strewed or strewn 

strown or strowed 

sworn 

swet r 

swept 

swollen r 

swum 

swung 

taken 

taught 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



57 



Present, 


Past. 


Perf. participle. 


Tear 


tore or tare 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve R 


thriven R 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen R 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought R 


wrought R 


Wring 


wrung r 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



58 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER XX. 
CONJUGATION OF A REGULAR VERB. 



Active Voice. 



Passive Yoice. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 



1. I love, 

o f Thou West, 

" t You love, 
3. He loves. 

1. We love, 
o f Ye love, 

* \ You love, 
3. They love. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

I am loved, 
f Thou art loved, 
X You are loved, 
He is loved. 

Plural. 

We are loved, 
f Ye are loved, 
X You are loved, 
They are loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 



1. I have loved, 
2 f Thou hast loved, 
' \ You have loved, 
3. He has loved. 

1. We have loved, 
o f Ye have loved, 

* \ You have loved, 
3. They have loved. 



1. I loved, 

2 f Thou lovedst, 

* \ You loved, 
3. He loved. 



Singular. 

I have been loved, 
/ Thou hast been loved, 
X You have been loved, 
He has been loved. 

Plural. 

We have been loved, 
f Ye have been loved, 
X You have been loved, 
They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 
Singular. 

I was loved, 
f Thou wast loved, 
\ You were loved, 
He was loved. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 59 

Plural. 

1. We loved, We were loved, 

o f Ye loved, / Ye were loved, 

" \ You loved, \ You were loved, 
3. They loved. They were loved. 

PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I had loved, I had been loved, 

ey ( Thou hadst loved, / Thou hadst been loved, 

X You had loved, X You had been loved, 

3. He had loved. He had been loved. 



2. 



Plural. 

"We had loved, We had been loved, 

f Ye had loved, f Ye had been loved, 

X You had loved, \ You had been loved, 

They had loved. They had been loved 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I shall love, I shall be loved, - 

2 f Thou wilt love, f Thou wilt be loved, 

" X You will love, X You will be loved, 

3. He will love. He will be loved. • 

Plural. 
1. We shall love, We shall be loved, 

o / Ye will love, f Ye will be loved, 

, X You will love, X You will be loved, 

3. They will love. They will be loved. 

PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. I shall have loved, I shall have been loved, 

o f Thou wilt have loved, f Thou wilt have been loved, 
" X You will have loved, \ You will have been loved, 
3. He will have loved. He will have been loved. 

Plural. 
1. We shall have loved, We shall have been loved, 
o f Ye will have loved, f Ye will have been loved, 

" X You will have loved, \ You will have been loved, 
3. They will have loved. ] They will have been loved. 



60 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I may love, I may be loved, 

2 f Thou mayst love, f Thou mayst be loved, 

\ You may love, \ You may be loved, 
3. He may love. He may be loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may love, We may be loved, 

o f Ye may love, f Ye may be loved, 

"*■ \ You may love, \ You may be loved, 

3. They may love. They may be loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I may have loved, I may have been loved, 

o f Thou mayst have loved, f Thou mayst have been loved, 

' \ You may have loved, \ You may have been loved, 
3. He may have loved. He may have been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We may have loved, We may have been loved, 

o f Ye may have loved, J Ye may have been loved, 

' \ You may have loved, \ You may have been loved, 
3. They may have loved. They may have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I might love, I mignfc be loved, 

„ f Thou mightst love, f Thou mightst be loved, 

* \ You might love, \ You might be loved, 
3. He might love. He might be loved. 

Plural. 

1. We might love, We might be loved, 

2 f Ye might love, f Ye might be loved, 

' \ You might love, \ You might be loved, 
3. They might love. They might be loved. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 61 

PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. I might have loved, I might have been loved, 
fThou mightst have (Thou mightst have been 

2. \ loved, \ loved, 

[ You might have loved, ( You might have been loved, 

3. He might have loved. He might have been loved. 

Plural. 

1. We might have loved, We -might have been loved, 
o f Ye might -have loved, , f Ye might have been loved, 
" \ You might have loved, \ You might have been loved, 
3. They might have loved. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

1. If I love, If I be loved, 

o f If thou love,- f If thou be loved, 

4 \ If you love, \ If you be loved, 
3. If he love. If he be loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we love, If we be loved, 

* If ye love, / If ye be loved, 



rif 
I if 



you love, \ If you be loved, 
If they love. If they be loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. 
1. If I loved, If I were loved, 



flf 
I If 



If thou loved, f If thou wert loved, 

If you loved, \ If you were loved, 
3. If he loved. If he were loved. 

Plural. 

1. If we loved, If we were loved, 

o f If ye loved, f If ye were loved, 

" \ If you loved, \ If you were loved, 
3. If they loved. If they were loved. 



62 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

IMPEKATIYE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 

f Be thou loved, or 
\ Do thou be loved. 

Plural. 

ey J Love ye, or f Be ye loved, or 

' \ Do ye love. \ Do ye be loved. 



2 / Love thou, or 
" 1 Do thou love. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

To love. To be loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

To have loved. To have been loved. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

PRESENT. 

Loving. Being loved. 

PRIOR-PRESENT. 

Having loved. Having been loved. 

PAST. 

Loved. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 63 



CHAPTER XXI. 

CONJUGATION OF A VERB IN THE 
PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRE3EXT TEX3E. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am building, We are building, 

o f Thou art building, f Ye are building, 

" \ You are building, \ You are building, 
3. He is building. They are building. 

PRIOR-PRESEXT TEXSE. 

1. I have been building, We have been building, 

9 f Thou hast been building, f Ye have been building, 

\ You have been building, \ You have been building, 
3. He has been building. They have been building. 

PAST TEXSE. 

1. I was building, We were building, 

2 / Thou wast building, J Ye were building, 

\ You were building, \ You were building, 
3. He was building. They were building. 

PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

1. I had been building, We had been building, 

cy J Thou hadst been building, f Ye had been building, 

\ You had been building, \ You had been building, 
3. He had been building. They had been building. 

FUTURE TEXSE. 

1. I shall be building, We shall be building, 

2 f Thou wilt be building, f Ye will be building, 

X You will be building, \ You will be building, 
3. He will be building. They will be building. 



64 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



PRIOR-FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

. (I stall 
* X ing, 



w r I shall have been build- f We shall have been build- 

X ing, 



Thou wilt have been build- (Ye will have been build- 



ing, 



ing. 



* 1 You will have been build- ' You will have been build- 

l i"g J# . I ing, 

o f He will have been build- f They will have been build- 
' I ing. X ing- 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be building, We may be building, 

o / Thou mayst be building, r j Ye may be building, 

' X You may be building, \ You may be building, 
3. He may be building. They may be building. 

PRIOR-PRESENT TENSE. 

1 . I may have been building, We may have been buildi ng, 

{Thou mayst have been f Ye may have been build- 
building J ing, 
You may have been build- j You may have been build- 
ing, I ing, 
o f He may have been build- f They may have been build- 
' X ing. X ing. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might be building, We might be building, 

o f Thou mightst be building, / Ye might be building, 

X You might be building, \ You might be building, 
3. He might be building. They might be building. 



2. 



'•{' 



PRIOR-PAST TENSE. 

' I might have been build- f We might have been build- 
. ing, X ing, 

(Thou mightst have been f Ye might have been build- 
building, I ing, 
You might have been ] You might have been build- 
building, ^ L ing, 
o I He might have been build- f They might have been 
' X ing. X building. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 65 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be building, If we be building, 

2 / If thou be building, ( If ye be building, 

" \ If you be building, ( If you be building, 
3. If he be building. If they be building. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were building, If we were building, 

2 / ^ *k° u wert building, f If ye were building. 

\ If you were building, \ If you were building, 
3. If he were building. If they were building. 

IMPEKATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Be thou building, or { ^™^g, 

•t Do thou be building. {^ n «K g . 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense, To be building. 

Prior-Present Tense,. To have been building. 

PAETICIPLES. 

Present, Being built. 

Past, Been built. 

Compound, Having been built. 



E 



66 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER XXII. 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Wherein does the past tense of the verb love, differ from 
the present ? 

What is the prior-present tense of the verb love ? 

What words is it composed of? 

What is the prior-past composed of? 

How does the future tense of love differ from the present 
tense ? 

How does the prior-future differ from the prior-present ? 

What words besides love and loved are used in forming the 
different tenses of the indicative mode of the verb love f 

A. The words have, had, and shall or will are used. 

The prior-past and future tenses cannot be formed without 
the aid of those verbs ; hence they are called auxiliary 
or helping verbs. 

Shall, will, may, can, and must, are auxiliary verbs ; and 
are used only in the present and past tenses. 

The verbs be, do, and have, are used as auxiliary verbs ; 
they are also used as independent verbs ; that is, as love, sell, 
build, and other verbs are used. 

Compose sentences containing the auxiliary verbs may 
and can in the present tense. 

Compose sentences having may and can in the past tense. 

Compose sentences having do and have as independent 
verbs. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 67 



CHAPTER XXIII. 
PARTICIPLES. 

1. The man, hearing a sound, tried to discover 
its cause. 

2. Loving him dearly, she forgave him the 
debt. 

3. The trooper wounded, fell from his horse. 

4. Having learned his lesson, he was allowed 
to play. 

Tho words hearing, loving, wounded, and having learned, are 
called participles. They are, as you have seen, forms of 
the verb. Hearing is a form of the verb hear ; loving, of the 
verb love ; wounded, of the verb wound, and having learned. 
of the verb learn. 

In the sentence, " I hear a sound," of what word is sound 
the object ? 

What case is it in ? 

Of what is sound the object in sentence No. 1 ? 

In what case is it ? 

You know that the object of a transitive verb is in the ob- 
jective case. In what case is the object of a transitive par- 
ticiple ? 

How is the participle hearing formed from the verb hear? 

What is the subject of hearing f Who was it that heard ? 

The participle hearing is said to belong to the noun man ; 
and the participle loving is said to belong to the pronoun she. 

What time is expressed by the words hearing and loving ? 

Present time ; hence they are called present 
participles. 

What time is expressed by wounded, in sentence No. 3 ? 



68 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Wounded is called the past participle because it ex- 
presses past time. 
To what noun does it belong ? 
How is the past participle wounded formed from the verb 

wound ? 

Participles are sometimes used as adjectives, and some- 
times as nouns. 

What part of speech is "having f 

What part of speech is learned ? 

If wounded is a past participle of the verb wound, what is 
learned ? 

Having learned is thus a compound participle, 
composed of the present participle having, and the past par- 
ticiple learned. 

What is the object of having learned? 

In what case is lesson ? 

What does having learned belong to ? 

What is the present participle of the verbs see, act, fight f 

What is the past participle of hate, reward, call f 

Compose sentences having the compound participle of the 
verbs contemplate, satisfy, and inquire. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 69 



CHAPTER XXIV. 
ADVERBS. 

1. He rides well. 

2. He reads extremely well. 

3. The soldier fought very bravely. 

4. The poem is exceedingly beautiful. 

What is the predicate of sentence No. 1 ? 

"What part of speech is rides ? 

What does the word well tell ? 

What do the words extremely well tell ? 

They increase the meaning of the verbs rides and reads. 
The first sentence asserts not only ' that he rides, but also 
that he rides well. The words extremely well tell how he reads : 
that is, extremely tuell increases the meaning of reads. Words 
which thus add to the meaning of verbs, are called ad- 
verbs. 

They sometimes add to the meaning of other parts of 
speech. Extremely well taken together, adds to the meaning 
of reads; take extremely by itself, and what does it tell? 

It tells how well. It thus adds to the meaning of well It 
is said to modify well. Well is an adverb. Hence we see 
that adverbs modify adverbs as well as verbs. 

What does very modify in sentence No. 3 ? 

What part of speech is bravely 9 

What does exceedingly tell in sentence No. 4 ? 

What part of speech is beautiful f 

Adverbs sometimes modify adjectives. 



70 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Compose a sentence with the adverb brightly modifying a 
verb. 

Compose a sentence with the adverb wonderfully modifying 
an adjective. 

Compose a sentence with the adverb very modifying an 
adverb. 

1. The book is there. 

2. The rain will cease soon. 

3. The stars shine brightly. 

4. He gave more than was wanted. 

There tells where the book is. It is therefore said to be 
an adverb of place. 

Soon tells when the rain will cease. It is an adverb of 
time. 

Brightly tells how the stars shine. It is an adverb of 
manner. 

More tells how much he gave. It is an adverb of 
degree. 

Adverbs are thus divided into classes according to their 
meaning. The chief thing we need to know about them, is 
to know how to use them properly. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 71 



CHAPTEE XXV. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

1. He went to New York. 

2. They halted before the breastwork. 

3. They set out after dinner. 

4. They returned during the singing. 

What is the predicate of sentence No. 1 ? 

What part of speech is New York f 

What does to do ? 

Tells where he went: it shows the connection between 
went and New York. 

What does before in sentence No. 2, show the connection 
between ? 

It shows the connection between halted and the breastwork. 
To and before indicate place. They are said to show the con- 
nection or relation of place between went and New York } and 
halted and breastwork. 

After shows the connection or relation of time between set 
out and dinner — tells when they set out. 

During tells when they returned. 

Towards tells the direction in which the fox ran. 

Words which thus show the relation between words, are 
called prepositions. 

The noun placed after a preposition is in the objective 
case. 

What other part of speech is followed by the objective 
case ? 

In the sentence, " It is the farm of Mr. Jones," what does 
of do? 

It expresses the relation between farm and Mr. Jones. 



72 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What relation is expressed by the preposition off 
The relation of possession. 

Express the thought without using the preposition 
Compose sentences containing the prepositions at, from, 
within, opposite, across, except, • 



CHAPTER XXVI. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. The rain and the frost destroyed the wheat. 

2. He was a kind and honest man. 

3. The farmer ploughs and sows. 

What is the office of and in sentence No. 1 ? In sentence 
No. 2? In No. 3? 

Words thus used in connecting words, are called con- 
junctions. 

1 . The flood came, and swept away the house. 

2. He fought a battle, and gained a victory. 

What does and connect in these sentences ? 

Conjunctions connect parts of sentences as well as words. 

Conjunctions whose office is to add words and parts of 
sentences together, are called copulatives. 

Compose sentences with the copulative conjunctions also, 
likewise, moreover. 

1. He was a rich man; but he did not always 
pay his debts. 

2. He worked hard ; yet he did not get rich. 

3. He was very weary ; still he kept at work. 

What would be expected of a rich man with respect to his 
debts ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 73 

The assertion that he did not pay his debts is not in keep- 
ing with the statement that he was a rich man. Hence it is 
connected with the statement by the conjunction but, and not 
by the conjunction and. 

What may be said of yet f 

It introduces an assertion which we should not expect to 
follow the first part of the sentence. 

What may be said of still ? 

Conjunctions thus connecting parts of sentences which 
are in some degree opposed to each other, are called ad- 
versatives. 

Compose sentences having the adversative conjunctions, 

nevertheless, notwithstanding, still. 

1. I will "give him a present, because he de- 
serves it. 

2. I will do it, since you request it. 

What does the word because connect ? 

What idea does it express ? 

What does since connect ? 

What idea does it express ? 

Conjunctions thus used to show that the thought of the 
second part of the sentence gives a reason for the first part, 
are called causal conjunctions. 

1. If I arrive in time, I shall meet him. 

2. Unless he is declared innocent, he will be 
sent to prison. 

What idea is the conjunction if used to express? 

If and unless render the first part of the sentence con- 
ditional. Conjunctions that are used to express condition, 
are called conditional conjunctions. 

Compose sentences having the conditional conjunctions 
provided and unless. 

Many classes of conjunctions may be made by noticing 
the offices which they perform. 



74 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

1. G, do not act so unwisely! 

2. Alas ! what sad consequences will follow . 

3. Ah ! you will one day regret your conduct. 

4. There ! you have set fire to the oil ! 

0, alas, ah, there, do not form any part of the subject or 
the predicate of a sentence. They are exclamations, or 
words thrown in by the speaker to express his feelings. 
They are called interjections. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 
ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 
1. The ship carries sails. 

Name the subject and the predicate. 

What parts of speech is the subject composed of? 

"Why do you say ship is a noun ? 

When you say " nouns are names of things," do you mean 
only those thing's that have length, breadth, thickness, and 
weight ? 

Is walking a thing ? What kind of thing is it ? 

It is an act. 

What part of speech is it ? 

Is thinking a thing ? What is it an act of? 

Is love a thing ? What kind of thing ? 

Is industry a thing ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 75 

Is hope a thing ? 

Is prejudice a thing ? 

Is hardness a thing ? 

When we say that nouns are names of things, we include 
under things every thing of which we can form an idea. 

What case is ship in ? Why ? 

What part of speech is the f 

To what word is it joined ? 

To what part of speech is the article said to belong ? 

Why is the called the definite article ? 

What part of speech is the predicate composed of? 

Name the present .tense, first person singular, the past 
tense, and the present participle of that verb. 

Is it a regular or irregular verb ? Why ? 

Intransitive or transitive ? Why ? 

Name its mode, tense, person, number. 

Why is it in the singular number ? 

Why is it in the third person ? 

What is true respecting the nominative and the verb ? 

Is it correct to say, " The ship carry sails ?" Why not ? 

What part of speech is sails ? Why ? 

What is it the object of? 

What case must it then be in ? 

In what case must the object of all transitive verbs be ? 

State the person, number, and case of sails, and tell why. 

The traveller crossed the river in a boat. 

Name the subject and the predicate. 
Give the person, number, and case of traveller f 
What part of speech is crossed ?. 

Name the present and past tenses, and the present par- 
ticiple. 

Transitive or intransitive ? Why ? 

Kegular or irregular ? Why ? 

State mode, tense, number, person and agreement. 

What part of speech is river f 



76 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

State person, number and case. Why ? 

Why is the used before river instead of a f 

A, Because some particular river is meant. 

What part of speech is in f 

What does it tell ? What office does it perform in the 
sentence ? 

A. It tells how he crossed. It shows the connection or 
relation between boat and crossed. He crossed in a boat. 

What part of speech is a ? 

To what noun does it belong ? 

Why is a used instead of the ? 

What part of speech is boat f 

State person, number, and case. 

In what case are all nouns after a preposition ? 

What do you do when you parse an article ? 

A. You tell what kind of article it is, and why ; and what 
noun it belongs to. 

What do you do when you parse a noun ? 

You tell what number, person, gender, and case it is in ; 
and why. - 

What do you do when you parse a yerb ? 

Tell whether it is transitive or intransitive, regular or ir- 
regular ; tell the voice, mode, tense, number, person, and its 
subject with which it agrees. 

A good man is beloved by his acquaintances. 

What part of speech is good f What degree of compar- 
ison ? Compare it. What noun does a belong to ? 

Parse man. In what voice is is beloved? What mode and 
tense ? What is the present tense of the passive voice made 
up of? 

What part of speech is by ? 

What is its office ? 

It shows the connection or relation of "his acquaint- 
ances," with the preceding part of the sentence. 

What part of speech is his? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 77 

What noun is it used in the place of? 
Express the thought of the sentence without using the 
pronoun. 
Decline he. 

"What case is his in ? On what word does it depend ? 
What relation does it express ? 
Parse acquaintances. 

What do you do when you parse an adjective ? 
What do you do when you parse a preposition ? 
What do you do when you parse a pronoun ? 

The house and garden were sold for three 
thousand dollars. 

What part of speech is house f 

Of what verb is it the subject? 

But were sold is in the plural number. 

What is the subject of were sold? 

It then has two words for its subject ; and those taken to- 
gether, make a plural verb necessary. 

What part of speech is and f 

What is the office of conjunctions? 

What does and connect ? 

Is it proper to say, "John, Thomas, and Eobert are in 
the house ?" 

Compose a sentence which shall express the thought with- 
out using the plural form of the verb. 

What part of speech is for t 

What words does it show the relation between ? 

What part of speech is three thousand $ 

What kind of adjective? WHat does it belong to? 

In what case is dollars ? 

I heard him calling his dog. 

What part of speech is calling $ 
What kind of participle ? 
From what verb ? 



78 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Name the present and past tenses of the verb. 

What word does calling belong to ? Y/hat case is his in ? 
Why ? What case is dog in ? 

What case follows the participles of transitive verbs in 
the active voice ? 

Compose sentences having nouns in the objective case 
after the participles loving, admonishing, killing and selling. 

What do you do when you parse a participle ? 

1. His hopeless condition distressed his friends. 

2. Alas ! his condition is hopeless. 

What part of speech is Alas ? 

What feeling does it express ? 

Parse hopeless in sentence No. 1. 

To what part of the sentence does hopeless belong — subject 
or predicate ? 

To what part does it belong in sentence No. 2 ? 

When an adjective is found in the subject, you say it be- 
longs to a noun : when it is found in the predicate, you state 
the fact, and tell what noun it refers to. You say that hope- 
less is an adjective used in the predicate, and referring to con 
dition, or modifying the meaning of condition. 

What parts of speech do adjectives limit the meaning of? 

They are used both in subjects and predicates. 

1. He sings sweetly. 

2. The wood is uncommonly hard. 

3. He wrote very correctly. 

What part of speech is sweetly f 

What part of speech does it modify 

What part of speech does uncommonly modify ? 

What part of speech does correctly modify ? 

What part of speech does very modify ? 

What three parts of speech do adverbs modify ? 

What do you do when you parse an adverb? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 79 

1 . one. but a brave man could have done it. 

2. He was a good man ; but sometimes he ne- 
glected duty. 

3. Our strength is but weakness. 

What part of speech is but in sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? 
No. 3? 



- CHAPTER XXIX. 
PARSING- Continued. 

1. Washington is called the Father of his 
country. 

2. The writer was an officer in the army. 

3. John Smith, the carpenter, made this desK. 

4. The sea being smooth, we set sail. 

5. The general having given the order, the 
troops made a charge. 

What case is Father in ? 

"What case is officer in ? 

Why are they not in the objective case ? 

You have examples then of verbs having the nominative 
case before them and after them. 

To what word does Father refer ? 

To what word does officer refer ? 

Some verbs have the same case after them as before them, 
when both words refer to the same person or thing. 

What is the subject of made in sentence No. 3 ? 

What office does the word carpenter perform ? 

Strike >out the words John Smith, and what is the subject 
of made ? 



80 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Does carpenter mean something different from John Smith f 

What case is carpenter in ? 

Nouns relating to the same person or thing are in the 
same case. 

One mode of expressing the fact that they are in the same 
case is, " Nouns signifying the same thing are put by appo- 
sition in the same case." 

What part of speech is being y in sentence No. 4 ? 

What does being belong to ? 

What verb is sea the subject of? 

Is sea the object of any verb ? 

Does it come after a preposition ? 

Is it in the objective case ? 

Is it in the possessive case ? 

What case is it in ? 

It is used in the nominative case with a participle. 
Grammarians say it is in the " Nominative Case Absolute." 

What part of speech is having given, in sentence No. 5 ? 

What case is general in ? 

Compose a sentence having a noun in the nominative case 
after the verb. 

Compose a sentence having a noun in the nominative case 
in apposition with another noun. 

Compose a sentence having a noun in the nominative ab- 
solute with a participle. 

1. O ye martyrs to freedom ! 

2. He staid there two days. 

3. Next year I shall go to college. 

4. He sailed five hundred miles. 

Who are addressed in phrase No. 1 ? 
Is there any verb whose subject or object martyrs may be ? 
When a person or thing is addressed, it is said to be in 
the nominative independent. 

In sentence No. 2, is days the object of the verb staid ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 81 

What do the words two days tell ? 

A. They tell how long he staid. 

Would it be correct to say, " He staid for two days ?" 

In what case would days be ? 

In sentence No. 3, what do the words next year tell ? 

A. They tell when he was going to college. 

What do the words five hundred miles tell ? 

A. They tell the distance he sailed. 

Nouns denoting time how long, time when, and the measure 
of distance, are sometimes in the objective case without a 
preposition. 

1. He asked John a question. 

2. He taught William Greek. 

3. The Postmaster gave me a letter. 

What case is John in ? 

What case is question in ? 

W r hat case is William in ? 

What case is Greek in ? 

What case is me in ? 

W T hat case is letter in? 

You may supply prepositions, and say, "He asked a 
question of John/' and " Taught Greek to William/' and 
" Gave a letter to me ;" but verbs of asking, teaching, giving, 
and some others, are followed by two objectives— one relat- 
ing to a person, and the other to a thing. 

1. He loves to sing. 

2. He required them to work for their bread. 

3. I heard him sing a sweet song. 

4. By his kindness, he made them love him. 

W T hat is the object of the verb loves f 
In what mode and tense is to sing f 
On what does it depend ? 

F 



82 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is the object of required,m sentence No. 2 ? 
What does the infinitive to work depend upon ? 
What mode is sing, in sentence No. 3 ? 
A. Sing is in the infinitive mode without the usual sign to. 
Parse love in sentence No. 4. 

A. Love is in the infinitive mode without the usual sign 
to, and depends upon made. 

After some verbs, the sign to is omitted. 



CHAPTER XXX. 



DIFFERENT OFFICES OF THE SAME 
WORD. 

1. The heavens are above us. 

2. I am from above. 

3. Set your affection on things above. 

4. The above remarks are true. 

What part of speech is above, in sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? 
No. 3? No. 4? 

In these sentences, how many different offices do you find 
the same word performing ? 

What do you mean by a word's performing different offices ? 

A. Having different meanings. 

How do you determine what part of speech a word is ? 

1 . He went after the cows. 

2. He came after the battle was over. 

3. The passage was inserted in after editions of 
the book. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 83 

What part of speech is after in sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? 
No. 3 ? 

1. Horses like grass. 

2. We shall not look upon his like again. 

3. Like causes produce like effects. 

4. The portrait is not like him. 

"What part -of speech is like in sentence No. 1? No. 2? 
No. 3? No. 4? 

1 . The apple is round. 

2. He gave him a round of beef. 

3. He roamed round the world. 

4. The world turns round. 

5. Bacon speaks of worms that round them- 
selves into balls. 

What part of speech is round in sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? 
No. 3 ? No. 4 ? No. 5 ? 

1. He leadeth me beside the still waters. 

2. Unkind as he was, she still loved him. 

3. I remonstrated with him; still he went 
on. 

4. The worm of the still destroyed him. 

5. He had power to still the waves 

W T hat part of speech is still, in sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? 
No. 3 ? No. 4 ? No. 5 ? 

Compose a sentence having above as an adverb, and after as 
a preposition, 

Compose a sentence having like as a verb, and round as an 
adjective. 

Compose a sentence having still as a conjunction. 



84 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1. He is a reading man. 

2. He was reading a book on philosophy. 

3. Reading is a profitable exercise. 

4. By reading the letter, he was informed of 
her coming. 

Parse reading, in sentence No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. 

1. That a straight line is the shortest distance 
between two points, is a self-evident truth. 

2. I see that you understand what I told you. 

"What is the subject of the verb is, before self-evident f 

A. The part of the sentence which precedes it. 

What office does that part of the sentence perform ? » 

A part of a sentence, then, may be used as a noun in the 
nominative case. 

What is fhe subject of see, in sentence No. 1 ? 

What is the object of see ? 

A. The whole of the sentence following. 

A part of a sentence may be used as a noun in the objec- 
tive case. 

What is the object of the verb understand f 

Compose a sentence having a part of a sentence for the 
subject of the verb. 

Compose a sentence having a part of a sentence for the 
object of the verb. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 85 



CHAPTER XXXI. 

PHRASES AND CLAUSES. 

1. The road to the mountain is straight. 

2. Study pursued with diligence, improves the 
mind. 

3. Kenilworth with its ivy-covered ruins, is a 
short distance from Leamington. 

4. The light on the hill was seen at a great 
distance. 

What words can you leave out in sentence No. 1 without 
destroying the sentence ? In No. 2 ? In No. 3 ? In No. 4 ? 

Show how each sentence would read. 

The words left out are phrases. 

Point out the phrases in each sentence. 

What does the phrase in sentence No. 1 tell ? In No. 2 ? 
In No. 3? In No. 4? 

How many words are needed to compose a phrase ? 

What is a phrase ? 

A. Two or more words grammatically connected, but not 
forming a proposition. 



1. The man, who has an excessive love of 
money, cannot be a liberal man. 

2. The prisoner, after he had kept silence for 
a long time, confessed his crime. 

3. The torrent, as it came down from the hills, 
swept the house away. 

What is the office of the words, " who has an excessive love 
of money ?" 



86 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

It describes the man spoken of. 

What is the office of the words, " after he had kept silence 
for a long time ?" 

It tells when the prisoner confessed-. 

"What is the office of the words, " as it came down from 
the hills ? 

It tells where the torrent came from. 

These words form clauses. 

Wherein does a clause differ from a phrase ? 

A clause has a subject and a predicate — a phrase has not. 

What is a clause ? 

A. A clause is a proposition forming a part of a sentence. 

In analyzing a sentence, point out the phrases and clauses, 
and tell what office each performs. Phrases and clauses 
may receive names according to the office they perform. 

Compose a sentence containing a phrase performing the 
office of an adjective. 

Compose a sentence containing a phrase performing the 
office of an adverb. 

Compose a sentence having a clause containing a relative 
pronoun. 

Compose a sentence containing a clause performing the 
office of an adjective. 

What are sentences made up of? 

Words, phrases, and clauses. 

What is a word ? 

What is a phrase ? 

What is a clause ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 87 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX 

SENTENCES. 

lo The day dawns. 

2. The heart is deceitful. 

3. Intelligence commands respect. 

The above are simple sentences; define a simple 
sentence. 

A. A simple sentence is the expression of one thought. 
Parse sentences No. 1, 2 ; 3. 

1. The day dawned, and preparation was made 
for the battle. 

2. The season was favorable, and very large 
crops were gathered. 

3. He was idle while at school, and thus failed 
to make due preparation for his life-work. 

The above are compound sentences; define a 
compound sentence. 

A. A compound sentence is the expression of two or more 
connected but independent thoughts. 

Make two simple sentences of sentences No. 1, 2, 3. 

When should a simple sentence be used ? 

When should a compound sentence be used ? 

Parse sentences" No. 1, 2, 3. 

1. When Charles was disobedient, his mother 
punished him. 



88 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

2. When I asked permission to go to the fair, 
my father said I might go, if I would be a good 
boy. 

3. A wise man said, "When your prospects 
are discouraging, do not think that they will 
never be brighter." 

What two thoughts are expressed in sentence No. 1 ? 

A. The disobedience of Charles, and his punishment by 
his mother. 

Suppose the sentence read thus : " Charles was disobedient 
and his mother punished hini ; " what kind of a sentence 
would it be ? 

A. A compound sentence. 

"What does sentence No. 1 assert ? 

A. It asserts that his mother punished Charles when he 
was disobedient. One part of the sentence depends upon 
the other for its full meaning. 

What is the main assertion in sentence No. 2 ? * 

" My father said I might go." 

What does the first clause in the sentence tell ? 

A. It tells when my father said — 

What is the office of the last clause ? 

A. It expresses the condition on which I had leave 
to go. 

The sentence consists of three parts, each dependent upon 
the others for its full meaning. 

What is the office of the first clause in sentence No. 3 ? 

A. It affirms that a wise man said — 

What is the. office of the second clause ? 

A. It expresses a part of what the wise man said. 

What is the office of the third clause ? 

A. It tells us not to think. 

What is the office of the fourth clause ? 

A. It tells what we are not to think. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 89 

The sentence is composed of four clauses, each dependent 
on some other clause or clauses for its full meaning. 

Sentences thus made up of parts depending one upon 
another, are called complex sentences a 

Compose a simple sentence. 

Compose a compound sentence. 

Compose a complex sentence. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 

PUNCTUATION. 

" On a gloomy evening in November, James 
Merrill, the son of Dr. Merrill, saw two men 
stealthily approaching his father's office ; and as 
their manner excited his suspicion, he resolved to 
watch them." 

The marks before on, and after November, Merrill, Dr., 
father, office, suspicion, and them, are called marks of 
punctuation. They are placed between sentences and 
parts of sentences, to assist the reader to understand what is 
written or printed. The principal marks of punctuation 
are, 

The Period, 

The Comma, , 

The Semicolon, ; 

The Colon, : 

The Interrogation, ? 

The Exclamation, I 

The Dash, — 

The Pareu thesis, ( ) 



90 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The Brackets, [ ] 

The Quotation Marks, " " 
The Apostrophe, 

1. Alfred and George have gone to school. 

2. Dr. fm. J. Cole, the brother of Capt. 
Cole, has gone to Mass. to spend the summer. 

3. The Art of Teaching. 

4. Turn to Chap. XII., and tell me when 
Charles I. was beheaded. 

What mark of punctuation is placed after each of the fore- 
going sentences ? 

In the second sentence, what do Dr., Wm., J., Capt., and 
3Iass. stand for ? 

Words shortened in this way, are said to be abbreviated. 
r What mark of punctuation do you find after each abbre- 
viation ? 

The third example is the title of a book : what mark is 
placed after it ? 

What mark is placed after XII. and I. in the fourth sen- 
tence ? 

From these sentences we may form a rule for the use of 
the period. 

EULE. 

The period is used after a complete sentence tvhich is 
not a question nor an exclamation ; after ab- 
breviations ; after the title of a book or of any 
piece of composition^ and after Roman num- 
bers. 

1. Where are you going? 

2. I am going to town. Can I buy you any 
ribbons ? any laces ? anything for family use ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 91 

3. Where now are the things that made youth 
so desirable ?— the bright hopes ? the warm feel- 
ings ? the happy thoughts ? 

4. Where now are the bright hopes ; the warm 
feelings; the happy thoughts; all things that 
made youth so desirable ? 

What are these sentences ? 

"What mark of punctuation is placed after each question ? 

What is the difference between sentence ISTo. 3 and No. 4 ? 

A. In sentence ISTo. 3, the clause containing the general 
term is placed first : in sentence Ko. 4, it is placed last. 

How does the punctuation of these two sentences differ ? 

Why ? 

A. In the first,, each fragmentary clause, being detached 
from the first clause, may be regarded as a ^separate . sen- 
tence : the second is a single sentence. 

From these sentences, form a rule for the use of the inter- 
rogation point. 

EULE. 

The interrogation point is used after every direct 

question, however fragmentary. 

1. Joy ! the victory is ours ! 

2. Help me, brother ! 

3. My daughter ! O, my daughter ! 

4. Fie, fie, fie ! Shame upon you ! 

These sentences are exclamatory : they express excitement 
or emotion. What mark of punctuation is used after them ? 

From these sentences, form a rule for the use of the ex- 
clamation point. 

EULE. 

The exclamation point is used after an interjection, 

and after an exclamatory phrase or sentence. 



92 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 
PUNCTUATION -Continued. 

1. Early on Monday morning; the small 
schoolmistress, having dressed herself in the 
plainest of gowns, took a gay picture-book in her 
hand, and walked briskly towards the cottage in- 
habited by Simon Gray, the brother of lame 
Bennie. 

2. The cottage stood at the foot of the hill, and 
faced a field bright with dandelions. 

3. As the schoolmistress neared the cottage, she 
looked up at the window of Bennie's room, half 
expecting to see his little thin face smiling at her. 

4. She did not see it, however. 

What kind of sentence is sentence No. 1 ? 

What is its first member ? 

What is its second member ? 

What mark of punctuation separates the two members ? 

What kind of sentence is sentence No. 2 ? 

What mark of punctuation separates its members ? 

What kind of sentence is sentence No. 3 ? 

What is its principal clause ? 

What is its dependent clause ? 

What mark of punctuation separates the clauses ? 

What two parts form the principal clause of sentence 
No. 3 ? What separates them ? 

You find the comma used to separate the members of 
these sentences. What is one use of the comma ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 93 

What kind of sentence is sentence No. 4 ? 

"What word do you find set off by the comma ? 

The word however is not necessary to the sentence. It is 
called a parenthetic expression. 

"What is the subject of sentence No. 1 ? 

Of what verbs is schoolmistress the subject ? 

What phrase do you find between the subject and the first 
verb? 

This phrase is called an intermediate expression. 
What mark of punctuation is placed after it ? 

What is another use of the comma ? 

A. To separate from the rest of the sentence parenthetic 
and intermediate expressions. 

In what case is brother, in sentence No. 1 ? 

What words are closely connected with it ? 

What mark of punctuation precedes the expression con- 
taining the noun in apposition ? 

W T hat is another use of the comma? 

A. To separate from the rest of the sentence expressions 
containing a noun in apposition. 

What does the phrase, early on Monday morning, modify ? 

When a clause or a phrase which modifies a verb is placed 
before the verb, it is said to be transposed. What can 
you say of the phrase, early in the morning f 

What mark of punctuation separates the transposed 
phrase from the rest of the sentenee ? 

For what, in the sentences given, do you find the comma 
used? 

A. To separate the members of a compound or a complex 
sentence; and to separate from the rest of the sentence, par- 
enthetic and intermediate expressions, expressions contain- 
taining a noun in apposition, and transposed phrases and 
clauses. 

1 . No answer being given to her knock at the 
door, the schoolmistress tapped on the window. 



94 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

After a moment, a keen-eyed, pale-faced woman 
looked out. 

2. "Good morning, Mrs. Gray," said the 
schoolmistress. " I have come to see Bennie." 
The woman nodded, and left the window. In a 
moment, she opened the door, and said, " Come 
in, madam. Anybody that comes to see Bennie, 
is welcome." 

3. "When the schoolmistress entered the cot- 
tage, she felt as if all the sunshine and warmth 
and cheerfulness of nature had died. The room 
was close and dark. Scarcely a beam of light 
could penetrate the small and dirty windows. 

"What kind of sentence is the first sentence in paragraph 
No. 1 ? 

What is the subject of the principal clause ? 

Of what verb is it the subject ? 

In what case is the word answer f 

How is the expression containing the noun in the nomi- 
native absolute, separated from the rest of the sentence ? 

In what case is Mrs, Gray, in the second paragraph ? In 
what case is madam f 

How are these words separated from the rest of the sen- 
tence ? 

The sentences spoken by persons in a story are called 
quotations. What quotations do you find in the second 
paragraph ? 

What word is used before the last quotation ? 

How is the quotation related to the verb said f 

A. It is the object of that verb. It is what the woman said. 

What mark of punctuation is used after said f 

What uses of the comma do you learn from the foregoing 
sentences ? 



EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 95 

A. We learn that the comma is used to separate from the 
rest of the sentence, an expression containing a noun in the 
nominative absolute, or in the nominative independent; and 
also a quotation preceded by a verb. 

In the first paragraph, why is the comma used after the 
phrase, after a moment ? 

In the second paragraph, why is the comma used after 
nodded? after door ? 

In the third paragraph, why is the comma used after cot- 
tage f 

What periods do you find in these paragraphs ? 

Give the Tule for their use. 

"What marks precede and follow the quotations ? 

1. Everything was in disorder. A three- 
legged table, filled with rubbish, toppled against 
the wall. A rusty stove, two broken chairs, a 
dingy cupboard, an old washtub, and a dozen or 
two cracked dishes, completed the furniture. 

2. " Bennie is in the garden," said the woman. 
u Perhaps you'd rather see him there than here." 
So saying, she opened a door, and showed the 
schoolmistress a small garden filled with pansies, 
pinks, lady-slippers, marigolds, and other common 
flowers. 

What marks for punctuation- do you find in the first and 
second sentences of paragraph No. 1 ? 

In what case are stove, chairs, cupboard, washtub, and 
dishes f 

Words used together in this way, are said to be in the 
same construction. What words in paragraph No. 2, 
are in the same construction ? 

How are the words separated ? 



96 EKGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What rule for the use of the comma can you form from 
these sentences ? 

This rale is not observed when conjunctions are used to 
unite the words of the series. In the sentence, " She felt as 
if all the sunlight and warmth and cheerfulness of nature 
had died/' the comma is not used, because the words are 
connected by conjunctions. 

Sometimes phrases and short sentences are used. in the 
same construction. They are then separated one from an- 
other by the comma. 

1. Under a willow-tree, whose light green 
leaves seemed to dance in the morning breeze, sat 
Bennie wrapped in a blanket that some one had 
given him. 

2. The schoolmistress, who had not seen him 
for several weeks, was grieved at the change in 
his patient face. 

3. Bat he smiled brightly, and threw up his 
hands in a way, that, joyful as it was, brought 
tears into her eyes. She went quickly forward, 
laid the book in his lap, and kissed his forehead. 

4. Then she said, looking about her, "Your 
garden is very pleasant, Bennie. Who keeps it 
in order ?" "Poor Tom/' said Bennie, pointing 
to a house wretched beyond description, that 
stood not far away. ; " He lives there." 

What relative clauses do you find in the first sentence? 

A relative clause used to limit the meaning of a word, is 
said to be restrictive. Which of these relative clauses 
is restrictive? What word does it limit? 

Point out the relative clause in the second paragraph. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 97 

Is it a restrictive clause ? Why not ? 

Which relative clauses have a comma before them ? 

What rule for the use of the comma can you form from 
the first two paragraphs ? 

Point out the relative clauses in the third and fourth par- 
agraphs. 

What kind of relative clauses are they ? 

In the third paragraph, what is the antecedent of the word 
thai? 

In the fourth paragraph, what is the antecedent of the 
word that f 

You see, that, in the third paragraph, the relative pro- 
noun is followed by an intermediate expression ; and that, 
in the fourth paragraph, several words are placed between 
the antecedent and the relative pronoun. In such cases, 
the relative clause, even when restrictive, is preceded by 
the comma. 

Point out the other marks of punctuation in the foregoing 
sentences, and give the reasons for their use. 

EULE. • 

The comma is used to separate the members of a 
compound or a complex sentence, unless those 
members are short and closely connected: to 
separate from the rest of the sentence, par- 
enthetic and intermediate expressions; a 
transposed phrase or clause ; an expression 
containing a noun in the nominative absolute, 
or a noun in the nominative independent ; an 
appositive noun with its adjuncts ; a quotation 
preceded by a verb or a participle; a rel- 
ative clause not restrictive ; a restrictive rel- 
ative clause, when words are placed between 
G 



98 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

the antecedent and the relative pronoun, or 
when the relative pronoun is immediately fol- 
lowed by a parenthetic or an intermediate ex- 
pression. The comma is also used to separate 
a series of words or expressions in the same 
construction, and to marh the omission of a 
verb or a connective. 



CHAPTEK XXXV. 

PUNCTUATION -Continued. 

1. Before the schoolmistress could reply, a 
scratching on the fence was heard ; and, a mo- 
ment afterwards, a boy somewhat older than 
Bennie, sprang over it. 

2. He was a strange looking boy. His matted 
hair hang over his forehead ; his eyes were dark 
and wild ; his mouth worked nervously ; his face 
was very pale ; his torn garments were almost too 
ragged for a scarecrow. 

3. Altogether he looked like one who had 
known all the ills of poverty ; who had been 
hungry and cold ; who had suffered from neglect 
or cruelty. 

What is the first member of sentence No. 1 ? 
Of what two parts is it composed ? 






ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 99 

Why is the first part set off by the comma ? 

What is the second member of sentence No. 1 ? 

Why is the comma used before and after a moment after- 
wards t 

Why is the comma used after JBennie f 

A, The verb was is omitted, and the comma is used to 
mark the omission. 

What mark of punctuation separates the principal mem- 
bers of sentence No. 1 ? 

When the members of a sentence are so long as to be sub- 
divided by the comma, they are separated from each other 
by the semicolon. Why is the semicolon used to separate 
the members of sentence No. 1 ? 

What kind of sentence is the first sentence in paragraph 
No. 2? 

What kind of sentence is the second ? 

Of what is it composed ? 

A. It is composed of several short sentences complete in 
themselves, but relating to the same thing. 

What mark of punctuation separates them ? 

What kind of sentence is sentence No. 3 ? 

Point out the relative clauses in that sentence. 

What is the antecedent of the relative pronouns ? 

What mark of punctuation separates the relative 
clauses ? 

How does sentence No. 3 differ from the preceding sen- 
tence ? 

A. Its relative clauses are all dependent on the same 
clause. In the preceding sentence, the clauses are inde- 
pendent. 

What rule for the use of the semicolon can you form from 
these sentences ? 

A. The semicolon is used to separate sentences connected 
in meaning, but grammatically independent ; and to separate 
clauses of similar construction, having a common depend- 
ence on some clause. 



100 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1. But notwithstanding his forlorn condition, 
he was not yet entirely degraded ; for his face 
lighted up when he saw Bennie, and his lips wore 
almost a smile. 

2. There were three things on earth that the 
schoolmistress loved; sunlight, flowers, and child- 
ren : and the more the last two needed the first, 
the more she loved them. 

3. She saw, in the boy before her, a human 
plant sadly in need of sunlight ; and she longed 
to take him out of the shade, and set him where 
he could thrive. 

What is the first member of sentence No. 1 ? 

What is the second member ? 

How are the two members related ? 

A. The first member is an assertion, and the second gives 
the reasons for it. 

What mark of punctuation separates the members ? 

What is the first member of sentence No. 2 ? 

In what case are sunlight, floivers, and children ? 

Why are these three words separated by the com- 
ma? 

What mark of punctuation precedes them ? 

What is the second member of sentence No. 2 ? 

Why is the colon used to separate the members of this 
sentence ? 

A. Because the semicolon is used in one of the mem- 
bers. 

Why is the semicolon used in sentence No. 3 ? 

Why is the phrase, in the boy before her, set off by the 
comma? 

Why is the comma placed after shade f 

Give a rule for the use of the semicolon. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 101 

EULE. 
The semicolon is used to separate the members of a 
compound sentence, ichen those members are 
subdivided by the comma; to separate sentences 
connected in meaning, but without any gram- 
matical dependence; to separate clauses of 
similar construction, having a common depend- 
ence on some other clause; to separate from a 
sentence an explanatory clause ivhen this, 
clause is introduced by a connecting word, 
and to separate a general term in apposition 
to several particulars, from the particulars. 

"For what purpose is the colon used in sentence No. 2. ? 

1. She did not speak to him at first: she was 
too wise to do that. She •opened the picture- 
book in Bennie's lap, thus displaying a bright 
picture; and waited to see what Tom would 
do. 

2. He hesitated. Then he sidled up to Bennie; 
and, with a laugh, laid his dirty hand on the 
book. Then he looked at the schoolmistress and 
nodded. Acquaintance had btegun. There is no 
knowing how long the little schoolmistress would 
have staid in that garden if the school-bell had 
not begun to ring. 

3. When she went away, the faces of both 
boys were radiant ; for she had promised to come 
again. These were her parting words: "Keep 



102 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

up your courage, boys. There is no cloud 
so black that it has not the sunshine behind 
it" 

Of how many members does the first sentence in par- 
agraph No. 1 consist ? 

How are they related ? 

A. The second is explanatory of the first. 

In a preceding sentence whose members are similarly re- 
lated, the semicolon is used. What mark of punctuation is 
used in this sentence ? 

Why? 

A. In this sentence, the connecting word because is omit- 
ted. Explanatory clauses not introduced by a conjunction, 
are preceded by the colon. 

Why is the semicolon used in the second sentence of par- 
agraph No. 1 ? 

Point out the marks of punctuation in paragraph No. 2, 
Dad give the reason for the use of each ? 

Why is the semicolon used in the first sentence of par- 
agraph No. 3 ? 

What kind of sentence is the last sentence in paragraph 
No. 3? 

What quotation do you find in it ? 

What word precedes the quotation ? 

What relation has the quotation to the rest of the sen- 
S3nce ? 

A. It is in apposition to words. 

What mark of punctuation precedes it ?- 

In how many ways have you found the colon used ? 

What is the first ? the second ? the third ? 

What mark of punctuation- is placed before a quotation 
preceded by a verb or a participle ? 

W T hat precedes a quotation in apposition to some other 
word in the sentence ? 

Give a rule for the use of the colon. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 103 

KULE. 

The colon is used to separate the members of a sen- 
tence, ivhen these members are subdivided by 
the semicolon ; to separate from the rest of 
the sentence, an explanatory clause not intro- 
duced by a connective; and to separate from 
the rest of the sentence, a quotation which is in 
apposition to some preceding word in the sen- 
tence, 

1. How often have I told you that — 
• 2. They walked soberly along the path, think- 
ing of past joys and future — muffins. 

3. You have heaped your favors upon one who 
has high birth/ a handsome person, good talents, 
but — -no principle. 

4. Will you who have lived with her in close 
companionship, have seen her patience, her self- 
sacrifice, her devotion — will you turn from her 
now ? 

5. They parted to meet at last in our common 
home — the grave. 

What does the dash show in sentence No. 1 ? 
A. That the sentence is not complete. 
"What does the dash show in sentence No. 2 ? 
A. A sudden change in the sentiment. 
Why is the dash used in sentence No. 3 ? 
A. To make what is said, more emphatic. 
In sentence No. 4 ? 
A. To mark the repetition of the thought. 



104 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

"What is this repetition called ? 

A. Rhetorical repetition. Sometimes it is called 
the ecno. 

Why is the dash used in sentence No. 5 ? 

A. It is used to mark the explanatory expression, 

RULES. 

The dash is used to denote a suspension of the 
sense, an abrupt change of sentiment, an em- 
phatic pause, or a rhetorical repetition. It is 
also sometimes used before an explanatory ex- 
pression. 

The marks of parenthesis and the brackets are used 
to separate from the rest of the sentence, some- 
thing that has no necessary connection with it 

Quotation marks are used to inclose a quotation. 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

CAPITALS. 



The following words should begin with a capital letter : 
The first word of every book, chapter or section ; 
The first word of every sentence ; 
The first word of a direct quotation ; 
The first word of every line in poetry ; 
Every name or title of the Deity ; 
Every proper name ; 
A word derived from a proper name ; 
Every title of honor or office ; 

Every important word in the title of any piece of com* 
position ; 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 105 

The name of a thing personified ; 

The name of an important event. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, should always be 
capitals. 

The names of the days of the week, and the months of 
the year should begin with capitals. 

The names of the seasons should not begin with capitals 
unless they are personified. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 
MEANING OF WORDS, 

In order to talk or to write, we need to know the meaning 
of words. Words have the meaning which is assigned to 
them by the usage of the best writers. The question to be 
asked about each word is, not what it ought to mean, but 
what it does mean. 

The child learns the names of things around him by 
hearing them called by their names. He begins the study 
of words almost as soon as he begins to know. 

When he begins to read, he often learns the meaning of a 
word from its place in a sentence. Suppose he has never 
seen or heard the word mill, and does not know its meaning. 
He meets with this sentence, " John put some corn in. the 
mill, and it came out in the form of meal." If he knows 
the meaning of the other words in the sentence, he will 
infer that a mill is something that can reduce corn to meal. 
If he meets with the word in several similar sentences, he 
will be sure that he has a right idea of its meaning. 

1. He solemnly affirmed that he was innocent. 

2. The blacksmith changed his occupation and 
became a farmer. 



106 ENGUBft LANGUAGE. 

3. The ice obstructed the passing of the ship 
through the water. 

4. I took the precaution to bolt the door. 

If you had never met with, the word affirm, could you infer 
its meaning from sentence ]S~o. 1 ? 

What is the meaning of occupation, as used in sentence 
No. 2 ? 

What is the meaning of the verb obstruct, in sentence 
No. 3 ? 

What is the meaning of precaution, in sentence No. 4? 

You thus see that you can learn the meaning of many 
words from the sense required by the connection. The first 
time you meet with a word, you may not be quite sure you 
have inferred its true meaning. When you have met with 
it in several sentences, you may be absolutely sure that you 
know its meaning. In cases where you are not sure, you 
should refer to a good dictionary. Every student should 
own a good dictionary. 

In reading, you should never pass over a word whose 
meaning you do not know. If you cannot infer the meaning 
from the context, you should refer to the dictionary. 

A dictionary cannot give you all the information you 
need in regard to words. It gives you an idea of the mean- 
ing of a word by giving words of similar meaning — some- 
times, but rarely, of exactly the same meaning. 

Take, for example, the word mount. One definition given 
in the dictionary is " to rise." You would not say, u A 
man came into my room last evening, and I mounted and 
received him." You would say, "I rose and received him. ,, 
It is proper to say, "I mounted to the top of the ladder." 

You need to know more about the meaning of words than 
can be learned from a dictionary. You want a word for a 
particular sentence, and usually there is only one word that 
will do for that sentence. You want the word which will 
exactly express the idea— nothing more and nothing less. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 107 

Hence, you must know more than the general meaning of 
words. You must observe how words are used by the best 
writers. Whenever you read, you should be carrying on 
the study of words. 

1. He made an unkind remark, and John re- 
peated it. 

2. He struck him, and repeated the blow. 

What is the meaning of repeated, in sentence No. 1 ? 
No. 2? 

1, Samuel recited his lesson. 

2. William recited the incidents of his journey. 

What is the meaning of recited, in sentence No. 1 ? 
No. 2? 

Can you with propriety change recited to told, in sentence 
No. 2 ? 

Can you make the same change in sentence No. 1 ? 

1. He told him all that he had done. 

2. Every 'word told on the decision of the 
case. 

W T hat difference in meaning between told,in sentences No. 1 
and No. 2 ? 

1. He heard the story, and reported it. 

2. He reported Webster's speech. 

State the difference in meaning of reported, in these sen- 
tences. 

1. He asserted that John was there. 

2. I will assert my rights. 

State the difference in meaning of assert, in these sentences. 



108 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

1. He rehearsed the whole matter to them. 

2. The students who are to take part in the 
exhibition, will rehearse soon. 

What is the meaning of rehearse, in sentence No. 1 ? 
In No. 2? 

1. The heavens declare the glory of God. 

2. I declare that I never said so. 

State the meaning of declare, in sentence No. 1 ? In 
No. 2 ? 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 
SYNONYMOUS WORDS. 

Words having the same meaning are called synony- 
mous words • There are very few words that are really 
synonymous — that have exactly the same meaning. To 
write or speak well, the exact meaning of the word used 
should be known. Hence it is necessary to discriminate ac- 
curately between words which are, by careless persons, sup- 
posed to have the same signification. 

1. The danger was great ; but his courage en- 
abled him to meet it. 

2. His bravery rendered him insensible to fear, 
as the enemy approached. 

3. His intrepidity was so great, that the brav- 
est gave him precedence. 

4. In fearlessness, he was not surpassed by any 
one in the army. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 109 

5. His audacity led him into enterprises to 
which cool courage would not have prompted him. 

6. He defended the accused with boldness ; 
though , by so doing, he gave offence to the gov- 
ernment. 

7. He had the effrontery to come into Wash- 
ington's presence, after he had been forbidden to 
do so. 

8. His fortitude sustained him amid all his 
troubles. 

9. He was censured for his temerity. 

10. His heroism awakened universal admira- 
tion. 

What are synonymous words ? 

Are there many such words ? 

What kind of man is a courageous man f 

What difference between a courageous man and a brave 
man t 

What difference between a brave man and an intrepid 
man? 

What is & fearless man? 

How does a fearless man differ from a courageous man ? 

What is a man of audacity 

What is a bold man ? 

How does a bold man differ from an audacious man ? 

Is a man of effrontery a man of boldness ? 

Of what kind of boldness ? 

What is a man of fortitude ? 

How does a man of fortitude differ from a man of courage f 

What is the difference between temerity and bravery ? 

What is a hero ? 

Do you praise a man when you ascribe courage to him ? 
Bravery ? Intrepidity ? Fearlessness ? Boldness $ 



110 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Do you praise a man when you ascribe audacity to him ? 
Effrontery ? Temerity ? 

Some words of the same general class are used in a good 
sense, and some in a bad sense. How are we to learn how 
to use them ? 

A. By following the example of good writers. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 
THOUGHT ANALYSIS. 

God made man for a certain end. It is man's 
duty not to defeat that end. He should endeavor 
to be what God made him to be. God made him 
to be a man. He has, therefore, no right to be a 
brute. It is his duty to be a man. It is his 
duty to do everything in his power to realise the 
idea of a perfect manhood. 

Man is composed of body and mind. They 
are mysteriously united, and exert a reciprocal 
influence on each other. A diseased body often 
enfeebles the action of the mind. A disordered 
mind often produces bodily disease. Both body 
and mind must be in a healthful condition ; both 
must be properly developed in order to a perfect 
man. 

A well developed body is of more consequence 
than is commonly supposed. The body is the 
instrument of the mind. If the instrument be 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. Ill 

out of order, the skill of the agent may be lost, 
or will be of little use. This shows that they are 
in error, who regard the culture of the mind as 
obligatory, but the culture of the body as op- 
tional. 

It is our duty to acquire a knowledge of the 
structure of our bodies ; because this knowledge is 
necessary to an intelligent care of them. 

Our bodily powers are developed by exercise. 
Activity and industry are necessary to the health- 
ful growth of our bodies — necessary to the devel- 
opment of bodily strength. Hence, habits of 
inactivity and idleness are wrong. 

What is the first sentence ? 
A. It is a statement — tells what God did. 
What is the second sentence ? 
A. It is a statement — tells what man's duty is. 
What is the third sentence ? 
A. It is a statement relating to duty. 
What relation has it to the preceding sentence ? 
A. It explains the preceding sentence. 
What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is a statement — tells what God made him to be; 
What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is an inference from the statement that God made 
him to be a man. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is an expansion of the preceding sentence. 

W r hat is the next sentence ? 

A. It is a statement. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is an additional statement. 



112 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is an illustration of the reciprocal influence men- 
tioned in the preceding sentence. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is a statement. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is a statement. 

What is the relation of the next sentence to the preceding 
one? 

A. It begins to give a reason for the preceding statement. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is a continuation of the reason. 

What is the next sentence ? 

A. It is an inference drawn from the two preceding sen^ 
tences. 



CHAPTER XL. 
COMPARISON OR SIMILE. 

1. Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart. 

2. Some women are like winter apples — in 
their youth they are crabbed and sour ; but, at 
the further end of life, they are full of softness 
and refreshment. 

3. As the hart panteth after the water-brook, 
so panteth my soul after Thee, O God. 

4. The hope of the ungodly is as dust which is 
blown away by the wind. 

5. Man cometh up as a flower, and is cut 
down : he fleeth also as a shadow, and continueth 
not. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 113 

6. As our shadows follow us without effort on 
our part, so praise follows good deeds. 

Sentence No. 1 was addressed to Milton. To what is his 
soul compared ? 

Why do you suppose Wordsworth said," Milton's soul was 
like a star?" 

Mention some things in which a soul can be said to re- 
semble a star. 

What comparison is found in sentence No. 2 ? 

What is true of winter apples when they are first taken 
from the tree ? 

What is meant, when women are said to be crabbed and 
sour f 

What is meant by " the further end of life ?" 

What is meant, when it is said of women that they are full 
of softness and refreshment f 

What are women compared to ? 

State the two parts of the comparison ? 

What comparison in sentence No. 3 ? 

What is the meaning oipanting,\n the first member of the 
sentence? 

What is the meaning of panting,in the second member ? 

Is it used in its common meaning in this member ? 

When a word is used in its common or ordinary sense, it 
is said to be used literally ; when it is used in a different 
sense, it is said to be used figuratively. 

What comparison in sentence No. 4 ? 

What is meant by the expression : " his hope is like dust 
blown away ?" 

Can the thought of the whole sentence be expressed with- 
out a comparison ? 

Why, then, is a comparison used ? 

How many comparisons in sentence No. 5 ? 

What is the first ? 

What is the second ? 

II 



114 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What idea is the sentence intended to express ? 

Do the two clauses express different ideas ? 

What is said of praise, in sentence No. 6 ? 

In what way does the comparison show that praise follows 
good deeds t 

Give, in literal language, the thought contained in the sen- 
tence. 

A. Praise follows, without effort on our part, our good 



When is language literal ? 

When is it figurative ? 

When you wish to give one an idea of something that he 
has not seen, and you tell him it is like something he has 
seen ; what is the object of the comparison ? 

A. To explain the meaning. 

One object of comparisons is to explain the meaning of 
what is said or written — to enable the hearer or reader to 
understand it better. 

When you say, " Her cheek is as white as a lily, or as red 
as a rose," do you use those comparisons to explain your 
meaning ? 

Your object is to present a beautiful image to the mind — 
to adorn rather than to explain. 

For what two objects may comparisons be used? 

A. To explain and to adorn. 

Compose six sentences comparing something: 1. To a 
rose. 2. A thorny path. 3. The morning dew. 4. An 
apple-tree in blossom. 5. The snow. 6. A ship without a 
rudder. 






ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 115 



CHAPTER XLI. 
COMPARISON OR SIMILE- Continued. 

1. Some men are like lilac bushes: they grow 
quick, but only for a short time : some are like 
locust-trees which grow all the season. 

2. The human race resembles the foliage of a 
large forest. When the air is calm, we perceive 
single leaves falling here and there from the 
branches ; when the tempest rages, thousands are 
precipitated in a moment. 

3. As the dove will clasp its wing to its side, 
and cover and conceal the arrow that is preying 
on its vitals, so it is the nature of woman to hide 
from the world the pangs of wounded affection. 

4. True friendship is like sound health: the 
value of it is seldom known till it is lost. 

5. There are two ways in which the steam of 
machinery may find an outlet for its force. It 
may be employed in driving the machinery, and 
if so, it works silently ; or it may escape, and 
that takes place with noise. There are two ways 
in which the spiritual energy of a man's soul may 
find vent. It may express itself in action silent- 
ly, or in words noisily; but just as much force 
as is thrown into one mode of expression, is taken 
from the other. 



116 ENGLISH LANGUAGE 

6. Like the leaves of the forest when summer 

is green, 
The host with their banners at sunset were 

seen ; 
Like the leaves of the forest when autumn 

is flown, 
The host on the morrow lay withered and 

strown. 

What two comparisons in sentence No. 1 ? 

Does the growth spoken of refer to mind or to body:* 

State in literal language, the thought contained in the sen- 
tence. 

A, Some minds grow rapidly, and soon get their growth. 
Other minds continue to grow during life. 

What is meant by the mind's growing rapidly f 

Is the word growth as applied to mind, figurative or literal? 

When you say the mind grows, you mean that it increases 
in strength and excellence. 

What is the human race compared to, in sentence No. 2? 

What are the two points of comparison ? 

What truth is expressed in those iigurative expressions ? 

A, Sometimes we see individual men die, and at other times 
we see large numbers die at the same time. 

What does the calm air represent? 

A. Ordinary times. 

The tempest represents? 

A. Times of pestilence and war. 

What advantage in expressing those truths figuratively? 

State the comparison in sentence No. 8? 

What is the thing compared ? 

What is it compared to ? 

Should you not always state first the thing compared ? 

What is the object of the comparison? illustration or em- 
bellishment ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 117 

What is the comparison in sentence No. 4? 

"What is the object of the comparison ? 

What is the comparison in sentence No. 5 ? 

In what two ways may a man give vent to his energy ? 

Which method will be the silent one ? 

Which the noisy one ? 

In what two similar ways may the force of steam be ex- 
pended ? 

What effect on the working power of the engine, will the 
escape of steam have ? 

What effect on the working power of the soul, will spend- 
ing one's time in boasting have ? 

What practical lesson can be drawn from this figure ? 

The allusion in sentence No. 6 is to the host of Sennacherib. 
What two comparisons does the sentence contain ? 

What idea is expressed in the first two lines ? 

What in the last two ? 

Why is the figurative preferable to the literal form of ex- 
pression ? 

Can you compare a church to a mountain f Why not ? 
. Can you compare a good man to' a rattlesnake? Why not ? 

What must comparison be founded on — of what must it 
be the expression ? 

What must you do before you give expression to a resem- 
blance t 

What must you do in order to see resemblances t 

The habit of perceiving resemblances between things is a 
very important habit. John Foster, a master of imagery, was 
always looking out for resemblances — for objects to illustrate 
or adorn some truth. The habit of noticing resemblances 
leads to the^habit of noticing analogies. 

There is a resemblance between two trees in bloom. There 
is an analogy between youth and a tree in bloom. There is an 
analogy between a tree dead at the top, and a man whose mental 
powers have fallen into decay. 

Compose a sentence expressing an analogy suggested by 



118 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

the sight of a willow bending before the storm, ana resuming 
its position when the storm has passed. 

Compose a sentence expressing an analogy suggested by 
seeing a man making careful preparation for a journey. 

Compose a sentence expressing an analogy suggested by a 
falling meteor. 

Compose a sentence expressing an analogy suggested by 
the sight of a lighthouse shedding its light on the dark 
water. 



CHAPTER XLII. 
METAPHOR. 



1. We have been friends together, 

In sunshine and in shade. 

2. She will not live long. Under the rose of 
apparent health, the worm is at its fatal work. 

3. Many a shaft is aimed at the heart of re- 
ligion, through its ministers. 

4. If the well-spring of love be dried up, there 
is nothing left worth living for. 

5. Every moment, souls fitted by gracious dis- 
cipline in this vale ; by the axe, and hammer, and 
furnace of trial, are carried away to their home 
above. 

6. He was superior to temptation. There was 
in his bosom no tinder which Satan's sparks 
could kindle. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 119 

Is sentence No. 1 literal or figurative ? 

What part of it is figurative ? 

What is meant by being friends in sunshine and in shade 2 

A. 'Being friends in prosperity and in adversity. 

What is sunshine put for ? 

What is shade put for ? 

Is there any resemblance between sunshine and prosperity t 

A. There is a resemblance in their effects : both promote 
cheerfulness. 

Words thus used to express a meaning in some respects 
similar to their literal meaning, are said to be used meta- 
phorically. 

What is the first clause of sentence No. 2 ? 

A, It is a statement or assertion. 

W T hat does the second clause do ? 

A. It gives a reason for the assertion. 

Is the reason expressed in literal, or in figurative language ? 

What is meant by the rose of health ? 

A. The appearance of health : a red cheek, for example. 

What is meant by the ivormr? 

A. Disease. 

Give the sentence in literal language. 

A. She will not livelong; for though she appears to be 
well, she has a fatal disease. 

What words are used metaphorically in the sentence ? 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 3 ? 

A. Many have attacked Christianity through its min- 
isters. 

What is a shaft ? 

What does the word mean here ? 

What is the difference between aiming a shaft at religion, 
and aiming it at the heart of religion ? 

What does a man design to do when he aims to put a ball 
into his neighbor's heart ? 

What does a man design to do when he aims a shaft at the 
heart of religion ? 



120 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

May you with propriety say, "The shaft was rolled at the 
heart of religion ?" Why not ? 

What words are used metaphorically in this sentence ? 

What is meant by the well-spring of love, in sentence 
No. 4 ? 

A. Capacity for loving. 

What is the metaphor in this sentence ? 

What is the capacity for loving compared to ? 

Is the comparison formally made ? 

What would the figure be called if the comparison were 
formally made ? 

A. A simile. 

What is the statement made in sentence No. 5 ? 

A. That, every moment,souls fitted on earth for heaven, 
are taken there. 

What words in this sentence are used figuratively ? 

What is meant by this vale f 

What is meant by the axe, hammer, and furnace of trial t 

A. Different kinds of affliction. 

What is meant by home above f 

What is affirmed in the first member of sentence No 5 ? 

What is affirmed in the second member of the sentence ? 

Which member is figurative ? 

What is meant by no tinder in his bosom ? 

A. There was nothing in him for temptation to act upon. 

What is meant by Satan 1 s sparks f 

When you say of a man that he is like a bear, what do you 
mean ? 

When you say of a man, he is a bear, what do you mean? 

Both expressions have the same meaning. When you 
say a man is like a bear, you use a simile ; when you say a 
man is a bear, you use a metaphor. 

In a simile, the words are used in their literal sense. In 
a metaphor, they are not used in their literal sense. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 121 



CHAPTER XLIII. 
METAPHOR— Continued. 

1. A casual thought may prove the key to 
open for us a new apartment in the palace of 
truth. 

2. Everywhere in the political w r orld, changes 
are taking place. Old foundations are breaking 
up : new edifices are rearing. 

3. The wine of sacred truth does not yield it- 
self without pressure. 

4. Vain speculations often lead us into thick- 
ets where we gather no fruit. 

5. Past is manhood's summer, the frosty months 
are here. 

6. The earth might have been made without 
its carpet of verdure and its ceiling of blue. 

Is the phrase, a casual thought, used literally or figu- 
ratively ? 

What words in sentence No. 1 are used figuratively ? 

What is meant by a casual thought proving a key ? 

What is meant by a new apartment in the palace of truth f 

Suppose the sentence read, " May prove the key to open 
a new fountain in the palace of truth," what criticism could 
be made? 

Express in literal language the meaning of the sentence. 

What is meant by changes taking place in the political 
world f 



122 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A. Changes relating to the governments of the different 
nations. 

What is meant by old foundations breaking-up f 

What is meant by new edifices rearing f 

Express in literal language, the meaning of the sentence. 

What is meant by the wine of sacred truth, in sentence 
No. 3? 

What is meant by pressure t 

What figure is the wine of sacred truth f 

Why is truth called wine f In what respect are they sim- 
ilar? 

A. Wine refreshes the body, and truth the mind. 

Suppose you say sacred truth is like ivine, what figure is 
used f 

You say wine of sacred truth : what figure ? 

Wherein does the simile differ from the metaphor ? 

Is there a resemblance in both cases? 

In which is it expressed ? 

In which is it implied ? 

State then the difference between a simile and a meta- 
phor. 

In a simile, the resemblance is expressed; in a metaphor, it 
is implied. A metaphor is an abridged simile. 

State in literal language, the meaning of sentence No. 3 ? 

We cannot understand the Bible unless we study it. 

What is meant by vain speculations, in sentence No. 4 ? 

A. Thinking about imaginary things, or about subjects 
beyond the reach of the human mind. 

What is meant by thickets t 

What is meant by fruit ? 

Give the sentence in literal language. 

A. Vain speculations often render our thoughts confused 
and perplexed, and we derive no benefit from them. 

What is meant by manhood's summer, in sentence No. 5 ? 

What is meant by frosty months ? 

What is middle age compared to ? 






ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 123 

What is declining age compared to ? 

Express in literal language the meaning of the sentence? 
What is meant by the carpet of verdure, in sentence No. G ? 
What is meant by ceiling of blue ? 
What is the grass compared to ? 
What is the sky compared to ? 
On what are similes and metaphors founded ? 
Construct sentences in which fire, temple, spring, snow, 
shall be used metaphorically. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 
PERSONIFICATION. 

1. The willow said to the oak, "I am more 
graceful than thou." 

2. And envious darkness, ere they could return, 
Had Stole them from us. 

3. His imagination is the handmaid of his 
reason, ready at any moment to spread her can- 
vas and present her pencil. 

4. Alike by the forest and human habitation, 
nature paints the flower, and plies the tiny shut- 
tles with which she weaves the web of the leaf. 

5. Youth and dearest memories revisit her; 
and hope almost wakes up again out of its grave, 
as the constant lady holds the young man's hand, 
and looks upon the son of Thomas Newcomb. 

6. Let the floods clap their hands. 



124 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Who speak ? 

A. Persons. 

What is the willow represented as doing ? 

When a thing is represented as doing what a person does, 
it is said to be personified. The figure used is termed 
Personification, 

What is personified in sentence No. 2 ? 

What words make the personification ? 

A. The words envious and had stole. 

Envy and stealing pertain to persons. When you ascribe 
to any thing the feelings or acts of a person, you use person- 
ification. 

What is personified in sentence No. 3 ? 

What is meant by imagination's being the handmaid of 
reason f 

What is the first word in the sentence indicating person- 
ification ? 

Is handmaid used figuratively ? 

How is it used ? 

A. Metaphorically. 

What personal acts are ascribed to her ? 

What is personified in sentence No. 4 ? 

What words indicate the personification ? 

What figure in the expression,pamte the flower f 

What figure in plying the shuttle t 

What does the metaphorical clause, "plying the busy 
shuttle with which she weaves the web of the leaf," express ? 

A. The process by which nature produces the leaf. 

Name the things personified in sentence No. 5 ? 

What act is ascribed to youth and memories f 
, What act to hope? 

Is the latter part of the sentence figurative or literal ? 

What is personified in sentence No. 6 ? , 

What personal act is ascribed to the floods ? 

What is meant by the floods clapping their hands f 

When are things personified ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 125 

A. When a thing, not a person, is spoken of as a person. 
What advantage is there in personification ? 
A. It adds life to the composition. 

Compose six sentences, personifying the moon, the ocean, 
love, famine, the wind, and the grave. 



CHAPTER XLV. 
METONYMY AND SYNECDOCHE. 

1. He will find a great many beautiful figures 
in Milton. 

2. He met a foeman worthy of his steel. 

3. Far back in the ages, 

The plough with wreaths was crowned, 
The hands of kings and sages 
Entwined the chaplet round. 

4. The pen is mightier than the sword. 

5. The mill employs forty hands. 

6. He works for his daily bread. 

What is Milton put for, in sentence No. 1 ? 

A. It is put for the writings of Milton. The name of the 
author is put for his writings, for sake of brevity. 

What is steel put for, in sentence No. 2 ? 

What is meant by a foeman worthy of his steel? 

A. A man worthy to fight with him. 

Is there any resemblance between a steel sword and fight- 
ing f 

In this sentence, the instrument is put for the act. 

In sentence No. 3, what line is figurative ? 



126 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is plough put for ? 

What is meant by crowning the 'plough with wreaths 1 

Is there any resemblance between a plough and agriculture ? 

Plough is used, not literally, but figuratively. This figure 
is not founded on resemblance. 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 4 ? 

What is pen put for ? 

Is there any resemblance between a pen and boohs f 

What is the sword put for ? 

What is the relation between sword and war f 

What is mill put for, in sentence No. 5 ? 

What is hands put for ? 

Express in literal language the thought of the sentence. 

When we say hand instead of person, we make a part 
stand for the whole. 

What is meant by sentence No. 6 ? 

What is bread put for ? 

Here, as above, a part, bread,is put for the whole — all the 
necessaries of life. 

When you call a man & fox, what do you mean ? 

Can you, with propriety, call a stone a fox f Why not ? 

In calling a man a fox, you expressed an implied resem- 
blance. You imply that there is a resemblance between 
the man and a fox, with respect to cunning and craftiness. 
When we call a thing by the name of another thing, in con- 
sequence of some resemblance between them, the name or 
word thus chosen, is called a metaphor. 

When we call a thing by the name of another thing, on 
account of some relation other than that of resemblance, the 
word is not called a metaphor, but a metonymy or a 
synecdoche. The words thus used are really meta- 
phors ; but rhetoricians have chosen to give them separate 
names. They differ from metaphors only in not being 
founded on the relation of resemblance. If you use figura- 
tive language correctly, the technical name given to a 
figure is of little consequence. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 127 



CHAPTER XLVI. 
PARABLE, ALLEGORY, FABLE. 

The number of figures properly so called is small. The 
metaphor is the principal figure. The examples that have 
been given have been short. 

A metaphor sometimes consists of a single word. Some- 
times it forms a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole 
sentence. 

Sometimes metaphorical language is continued through a 
succession of sentences, and, perhaps, of pages. It then is 
called a parable or an allegory. If it is short, it is 
commonly called a parable ; if long, an allegory. 

You have read the parables of the New Testament. They 
are narratives adapted to convey and impress truth. The 
incidents related may have taken place, or they may have 
been imaginary. It is of no consequence whether the nar- 
rative is real or fictitious, so that it accomplishes the end in 
view : viz., communicating truth. 

The parable of the Prodigal Son was designed to teach the 
forgiving love of our Heavenly Father. Christ might have 
said, "God will forgive and love penitent sinners;" but one 
would not see and feel the truth as he does when reading 
the parable. 

The " Pilgrim's Progress" is the most celebrated allegory 
in the English language. It is designed to describe the life 
of a follower of Christ. 

A fable is a fictitious story, designed to teach or impress 
some truth. 

Allegories, parables, and fables, are said to be works of 
imagination. By this is meant that the mind imagines the 
events narrated. 



128 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

An allegory, a parable, or a fable, may not be true in its 
literal sense, while it may be intensely true in its figurative 
sense. Taken literally, the words of the parable may not 
state the truth ; but taken in the sense in which it was de- 
signed they should be taken, they are intensely true. 

Allegories, parables, and fables, are called works of fiction. 
Fiction may therefore be used as a vehicle of truth. 

What is the difference between a metaphor and a parable 
or an allegory ? 

What is the difference between a parable and an allegory ? 

What is a fable? 

In what sense are fables untrue? and in what sense may 
they be true ? 

What kind of works are allegories, parables, and fables ? 

A. Works of fiction. 

Are they intended to deceive persons ? 

What relation may they sustain to truth ? 

What kind of books should be read ? 

A. Good books. 

May a work of fiction be a good book ? 

A. It may ; but the great majority of works of fiction are 
worthless. 



CHAPTER XLVIL 
IRONY. 



1. Cry aloud: for he is a god: either he is 
talking, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, 
or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked. 

2. No doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom 
shall die with you. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 129 

3. I am speaking of other days, you under- 
stand. Of course there is no puffing, or jobbing, 
or false praise, or unfair censure now. Every 
critic knows what he is writing about, and writes 
with no aim but to tell the truth. 

4. " If that young man goes on as charmingly 
as he has begun," said Barnes Newcome of his 
cousin Clive, " he will be a paragon. I saw him 
at Vauxhall with young Miss . Two or 

• three other gentlemen, probably young old-clothes* 
men, joined him and his friend, and they partook 
of rack-punch fti an arbor. He is a delightful 
young man, cousin Clive, and I feel sure that he 
is about to be an honor to his family." 

What does sentence No. 1 consist of? 

A. It consists of an exhortation and the reasons for it. 

Is the latter part of the sentence to be understood lite* 
rally ? 

Is sentence No. 2 to be understood literally ? 

What did the speaker mean to affirm ? 

A. He meant that those addressed were not wise — he 
meant the opposite of what he said. 

What does the writer of sentence No. 3 mean to affirm ? 

How is the sentence to be understood ? 

When the meaning intended is the opposite of what 
is expressed, the writer is said to use irony. 

Compose an ironical sentence relating to a man's character. 

Compose an ironical sentence relating to a road. 



130 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER XLVIII. 
ALLUSION. 



1. In the field of government, as in that of the 
world, the tares of despotism were sown while 
men slept. 

2. There is always a joint in the harness of in- 
justice, where the arrow of retribution, though 
seeming to speed at a venture, will be sure to find 
its way. 

3. If we could but stop the rushing tide of 
time that bears us so swiftly onwards, and make 
it flow towards its source ; if we could cause the 
shadow to turn back on the dial-plate ! 

3. Some corrupt men of genius have produced 
some works of the best taste. Taste seems to me 
to be in such men, what the harp of David was 
to Saul — it charms away the evil spirit ; but it is 
only for a time. 

4. The chevalier, from behind the little cur- 
tain which he had put over the orifice of his 
letter-box, had the dismal satisfaction of seeing 
the faces of furious clerk and fiery dun, as they 
dashed up against the door and retreated from it. 

Name the metaphors in sentence No. 1. 

What is meant by fields of government, and tares of despot- 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 131 

What allusion do you find in the sentence ? 

A. An allusion to the Parable of the Tares. 

Mention the figures found in sentence No. 2 ? 

To what is allusion made ? 

A. To a passage in the Eighteenth Chapter of Second 
Chronicles : " And a certain man drew a bow at a venture, 
and smote the king of Israel between the joints of the har- 
ness." 

What is the allusion in sentence No. 3 ? 

A. To a* passage in the Second Book of Kings: "And he 
brought the shadow ten degrees backwards by which it had 
gone down in the dial of Ahaz." 

What is the allusion in sentence No. 3 ? 

A. To the fact that David played on the harp before 
Saul, and to the effect produced. 

What allusion in the words furious clerk and fiery dun in 
sentence No. 4 ? 

A. To the lines of Campbell : 

u Where furious Frank and fiery Hun 
Shout in their sulphurous canopy. 

When the allusion is to a beautiful passage, an additional 
idea is presented to the mind. 

Allusions are so numerous in works of educated men, 
that it requires an extensive acquaintance with books to un- 
derstand them. He who does not understand the allusions 
of an author, loses a part of the meaning and force. 

Allusions are usually founded on resemblance. They 
sometimes illustrate and sometimes adorn the sentence. 



132 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER XLIX. 
VARIOUS FIGURES. 

1. "What we must do, we may as well do wil- 
lingly. There is no use in being dragged through 
the world like a dog under a cart, hanging back 
and yelping. 

2. Religion is the pearl of great price. 

3. Like this kindly season may life's decline 

come o'er me ; 
Past is manhood's summer, the frosty 

months are here ; 
Yet be genial airs and a pleasant sunshine 

left me, 
Leaf, and fruit, and blossom, to mark the 

closing year. 

4. Oh, glory of our race, that so suddenly de- 

cays! 
Oh, crimson flush of morning, that darkens 

as we gaze ! 
Oh, breath of summer blossoms, that on the 

restless air 
Scatters a moment's sweetness, and flies we 

know not where. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 133 

5. The mountains that infold, 

In their wide sweep, the colored land- 
scapes round, 
Seem groups of giant kings in purple and 
gold, 

That guard the enchanted ground. 

6. Bayonets think in these latter days. 

7. When shrieked 

The bleak November winds and smote the woods, 
And the brown fields were herbless, and the shades 
That met above the merry rivulet 
Were spoiled, I sought, I loved them still. They 

seemed 
Like old companions in adversity. 

8. It is marvellous how innocence perceives 
the approach of evil of which it has had no expe- 
rience ; just as the dove which has never seen a 
falcon, trembles by instinct at its approach. 

9. Time lessens our grief. Under its influence, 
our present feelings wear out at last, and our 
minds become like old monumental tablets which 
have lost the inscriptions once so deeply engraven 
on them. 

10. Shall the rich crystal vase which stands 
protected from dust and injury on the table of the 
wealthy man, boast that it has escaped the soiling 
and fractures which the earthen jar, exposed and 
subjected to general uses, has sustained? O 



134 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

man, who wouldst be a Pharisee, consider thyself 
lest thou also be tempted ! 

11. Blue were her eyes as the fairy flax, 

Her cheeks like the dawn of day, 
And her bosom white as the hawthorne 
buds 
That ope in the month of May. 

12. The sun peeped out; the drops of rain upon 
the leaves glistened in the sunshine like afflic- 
tions beautified by heavenly thoughts, and all 
nature invited me out to enjoy the gladness of 
her aspect. 

What figure is found in sentence No. 1 ? 
What truth does it illustrate ? 

Is the main design of it to illustrate or to beautify ? 
What figure in sentence No. 2 ? 
Point out the various figures in sentence No. 3. 
Point out the figures in sentence No. 4. 
Point out the figures in No. 5. 
What figure in sentence No. 6 ? 
What figure in the first two lines of sentence No. 7 ? 
Are the second, and third, and fourth lines figurative or 
literal ? 

W T hat figure in the fifth and sixth lines ? 

What two figures in sentence No. 8 ? 

What figure in sentence No. 9 ? 

What figures in sentence No. 10? 

How many figures in sentence No. 11 ? 

Point them out. 

What figures in sentence No. 12 ? 

State the comparison. 

State the personification. 

What words indicate the personification of nature ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 135 



CHAPTER L. 

APOSTROPHE, INTERROGATION, 
VISION. 

1. Oh, silvery streamlet of the field, 

That flowest full and free ! 
For thee the rains of spring return, 
The summer dews for thee. 

2. Oh, stream of life ! The violet springs 

But once beside thy bed ; 
But one brief summer on thy path, 
The dews of heaven are shed. 

3. Path of the flowery woodland! 
Oh, whither dost thou lead? 

4. Sweet zephyr ! why that sound of woe ? 

Is not thy home among the flowers ? 
Do not the bright June roses blow, 
To meet thy kiss at morning hours ? 

5. He that made the eyes, shall not he see ? 

What is addressed in the first line of sentence No. 1 ? 

An address to a person or thing is called apostrophe. 

What is the office of the second line ? 

What is the office of the third line ? 

What figure does thee indicate ? 

What is the office of the fourth line ? 

What is addressed in the first line of sentence No. 2 ? 

What is said of it ? 



136 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Is that literal or figurative language ? 

What is affirmed in lines third and fourth ? 

Is that figurative ? 

What is meant by it ? 

What form of expression occurs in the first line of sen- 
tence No. 3 ? 

What in the second line ? 

What forms of expression in the first line of sentence No. 4 ? 

What in the second, third, and fourth lines ? 

What is the design of those three lines ? 

A. To show that the zephyr should not give forth sounds 
of woe. The use of the interrogation in this sentence, is not 
to ask a question, but to make an affirmation. 

What is the use of the interrogation in sentence No. 5 ? 

Give the sentence in an affirmative form. 

What is an apostrophe ? 

A, An address to a person or thing. 

What are the two uses of interrogation ? 

Apostrophe and interrogation have been called figures of 
speech. They are not figures, but forms of expression. 

Compose a sentence containing an apostrophe. 

Compose a sentence containing an affirmative interrogation. 

1. The wind rises suddenly. A furious blast 
strikes the sails, and lays the ship on her beam's 
end. 

2. Again the hinges turn, and a youth depart- 

ing throws 

A look of longing backward, and sorrow- 
fully goes ; 

A blooming maid, unbinding the roses from 
her hair, 

Moves mournfully away from amidst the 
young and fair. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 137 

When the present tense is used in speaking of past occur- 
rences, the form of expression is termed vision. 

Its proper use adds vivacity to the composition. 

Construct sentences giving an example of vision ;" that is, 
describe some past event as though it were taking place 
now. 



CHAPTER LI. 
ANTITHESIS, CLIMAX, HYPERBOLE. 

1. Washington was a patriot; Arnold was 
a traitor. 

2. The name of AVashington is honored ; the 
name of Arnold is despised. 

3. Spenser was remarkable for beauty ; Milton, 
for sublimity. 

4. Dryden's page is a natural landscape, with its 
hills and valleys ; Pope's is a velvet lawn, shaven 
by the scythe and levelled by the roller. 

How many members has sentence No. 1 ? No. 2 ? No. 3 ? 
No. 4 ? 

What relation to each other have the members ? 

A. They express different and contrasted thoughts. One 
member is set over against the other. 

This form of structure is called antithesis. 

Is the language of sentence No. 1 literal or figurative ? of 
sentence No. 2? No. 3? 

Figurative use of words is not necessary to antithesis. 

Is sentence No. 4 figurative or literal ? 

What is page used in place of? 



138 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A. Dry den's writings. 

What is the name of the figure ? 

What figure in the words natural landscape f . 

What figure in shaven lawn f 

Figurative language may be put in an antithetical form. 
Antithesis is not a figure, but a form of constructing a sen- 
tence. 

This form should be used when the sense requires it — 
when there is opposition or contrast in the thoughts to be 
expressed. 

Construct sentences contrasting day and night, youth and 
old age. 

1. He is an honest, benevolent, generous, self- 
sacrificing man. 

2. He stood by the fountain gushing from the 
mountain side ; he saw first the rivulet, then the 
brook, then the river, then the ocean. 

3. It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in 
bonds ; it is the height of guilt to scourge him ; 
it is little less than parricide to put him to death 
in the mildest form : what name, then, shall be 
given to the act of crucifying him ? 

In sentence No. 1, you notice that each successive word 
increases in importance. You think well of an honest man, 
you think still better of him when you find he is benevolent, 
still better when you find he is generous, and still better 
when he is self-sacrificing. 

The form of a sentence with each word or member in- 
creasing in importance, is called climax, . 

Is sentence No. 2 a climax ? Why ? 

Is sentence No. 3 a climax ? 

Show the increased importance of each successive thought. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 139 

A. It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds, still 
worse to scourge him, still worse to take his life in the 
easiest form, and still worse to crucify him. 

Climax is not a figure, but a form of sentence. In 
constructing a sentence after this form, literal or figurative 
language may be used, as the case may require. 

This form should be used only when the thoughts we wish 
to express require it. 

Construct a climax describing the progress of a storm. 

1. I have told you a thousand times not to do 
that. 

2. She had in the Life Guards, a cousin with 
such long legs that he looked like the afternoon 
shadow of somebody else. 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 1 ? 

A. " I have told you a great many times." 

The expression is an exaggerated one, such as young 
people are apt to use. 

"What figure is used in sentence Xo. 2 ? 

What was the design of the figure ? 

A. To give the idea of excessively long legs. 

Such expressions are called hyperbolical. Exaggeration 
and hyperbole mean the same thing. Hyperbole may 
consist of literal or of figurative language. It is not itself a 
figure. 



140 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER LIL 

TAUTOLOGY, EUPHEMISM, 
ALLITERATION. 

1. He failed to do his appointed work on ac- 
count of debility and want of strength. 

2. His intellect was keen and sharp ; his heart 
was kind and benevolent. 

3. He was a false traitor, and a dishonest 
knave. 

4. To enlarge the mind, and give it greater 
capacity, is the object of education. 

In sentence No. 1, what is the difference in meaning be- 
tween debility and want of strength t 

"What alteration would you make in the sentence? 

In sentence No. 2, what is the difference between keen and 
sharp as applied to intellect f 

How would you correct the sentence ? 

What criticisms can you make on sentence No. 3 ? 

What criticism on sentence No. 4 ? 

In those sentences, the same thing is repeated. This 
fault is called tautology, 

1. David slept with his fathers, 

2. He was convicted of forgery, and was ac- 
commodated with lodgings at the expense of the 
State. 

3. He was under the influence of liquor. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 141 

4. His statements would have more weight, if 
his habits of accuracy were more perfect. 

5. Your friend has gone to the better land. 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 1 ? 

What is the meaning of the latter part of sentence No. 2 ? 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 3 ? 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 4 ? 

What is the meaning of sentence No. 5 ? 

This form of expression is called euphemism. It is 
designed to present an unpleasant thought in a less repulsive 
form. 

1. The lordly lion leaves his lonely lair. 

2. The royal revenues were large. 

3. Apt alliteration's artful aid. 

What is particularly noticeable in these sentences ? 

This repetition of the same letter at the beginning of two 
or more words near together, is called alliteration. 

When its use is not too frequent and does not appear la- 
bored, its effect is pleasant. 



CHAPTER LIIL 
INVENTION. 



In order to write a composition, one must first get some- 
thing to write. Language is used to express thoughts. 
Finding out thoughts to express in words, is called inven- 
tion. 

The young pupil wishes to know how he can find some- 
thing to write, when it is his duty to write a composition. 



142 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

When you set out to write a composition, you should have 
a definite object in view. To have a definite object in view, 
is to have a subject. It should be your object to describe 
something, or to praise something, or to ridicule something, 
or to prove something, or to refute something ; you should 
have some definite object to aim at. 

Suppose your object is to describe a scene on the sea-shore. 
You will call to mind the appearance ' of the sandhills, the 
beach, the breakers, the boundless expanse of water, the sea- 
birds, and the passing ships, and will proceed to describe 
them. 

If you wish to describe a locality which you have never 
visited, you must, if you wish to give an original description 
of it, go and see it. Before you can describe a scene, you 
must see it. Before you can give expression to a thought, 
you must have it in your mind. 

Suppose you are called to write upon this question: "Will 
John keep his resolution to study hard all the week ?" 

You intend to show that he will not keep his resolution. 
You must give some reasons in support of the opinion you have 
formed. These reasons must be seen, must be in your mind, 
before you can put them on paper. You ask yourself, " What 
reason can I think of for thinking that John will not keep 
his resolutions?" You remember that he has often failed to 
keep his resolution. You know he is fond of play. You 
know that his cousins are coming to visit him, and they will be 
likely to hinder his studies. You thus think of a good many 
reasons in favor of your proposition. You write them down, 
and then see whether they are clearly expressed, and in the 
best order. in writing a second time, you express your 
thoughts more clearly, and arrange them in better order. 
Probably it will be best to think over the reasons, with your 
pen in your hand, jotting each one down as it occurs to you, 
lest you should forget it. 

In the case first mentioned, you got thoughts by looking 
through the eyes at the things to be described. In the case 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 143 

last mentioned, you got thoughts by looking at the propo- 
sition you wished to prove. 

Suppose your object is to show that a good man is, in this 
world, happier than a bad man. You fix your mind on the 
proposition, and try to think of the sources of happiness open 
to the good man. You think of his peace of mind, of the 
pleasure he feels in doing good, of the esteem in which he is held. 
When you cannot think of any more sources of happiness 
open to the good man, you turn your thoughts to the bad 
man. You think of the sources of happiness open to him, 
and of the evils that are likely to befall him. You jot down 
such thoughts as have relation to the subject; and when 
you have thoughts enough for your purpose, you proceed to 
put them in order, and to express them in the best way you 
can. 

"While you are thus occupied in trying to find thoughts 
suited to your purpose, many other thoughts will come into 
your mind ; but you will pay no attention to them : you will 
retain only such as appear to be suited to your purpose. 

Whatever subject you choose for a composition, you first 
need to know what is true concerning it. That you can 
learn by looking at it — fixing your attention upon it. 

The main reason why some persons see more truths re- 
lating to a subject than others do, is that they fix their at- 
tention upon it more steadily, and for a longer time. You 
cannot expect to see facts relating to an object of sight, with- 
out looking at it carefully, and you cannot expect to see 
truths relating to a subject, without looking at it — fixing the 
attention upon it. 

To think out a composition on a subject, is to see the truths 
relating to that subject. Thinking is nothing different from 
seeing truth. 

To the question, " How shall I get something to write ?" 
the answer is, look at your subject, and see what is true re- 
specting it. 

Suppose you wish to write a description of a city. Unless 



144 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

you copy you^ description from other writers, you must see 
the city. You cannot describe it accurately and fully, un- 
less you have seen every part of it. 

Suppose you wish to write an account of an excursion you 
once made. You must call to mind what happened during 
that excursion, and select such incidents as you wish to put 
on paper. 

Suppose you wish to describe the character of a certain 
person. You must learn what his character is. This can 
be done by associating with him for a long time, or by 
taking the testimony of those who have thus associated with 
him. 

Suppose you wish to write an argument in favor of a cer- 
tain proposed course of action. To write an argument in 
favor of such a course, is to give the reasons why it should 
be done. Suppose you wish to write an argument in favor of 
celebrating the birthday of Washington. You must con- 
sider what reasons there are for celebrating that day. When 
you have thought of a sufficient number of reasons } you will 
be prepared to write. 

Suppose you wish to write on the causes of a certain war. 
You must inquire what those causes were. You must use 
all the means of information within your reach. You are 
not prepared to write on that subject, until you have learned 
those causes. 

Suppose you wish to write a letter to a friend. You must 
think over what you wish to say. You must think what 
feelings you wish to express, what news you wish to tell, 
what requests you have to make, and what advice you wish to 
give. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 145 



CHAPTER LIV. 

CLEARNESS. 

Thoughts should be expressed with clearness, force, 
and beauty. 

A thought cannot be clearly expressed, unless it is clearly 
seen by the mind. You cannot give a clear description of 
an object seen imperfectly at twilight, or in a mist. You 
cannot give a clear account of the method of solving a 
problem in arithmetic or algebra, when you do not fully un- 
derstand that method. You cannot give a clear account of 
what took place in a room at a certain time, if you have a 
confused idea of what took place there. You cannot ex- 
press a clear opinion on any subject, unless you have a clear 
opinion on that subject. 

Clearness of expression thus depends upon clearness of 
thought. Hence, he who would learn to write, must form 
habits of clear thinking ; that is, must train his mind to see 
clearly. This is done by exercise. You learn to hit a mark, 
by exercising yourself in trying to hit it. You will learn 
to see clearly, by constantly trying to see clearly. Never be 
content with an obscure and indefinite idea of any thing, if 
it is possible to have a clear and definite one. 

When you are reading, see that you fully understand 
what you read. If, in order to do this, it is necessary to 
read a passage over several times, do not fail to do so. If a 
person is giving you information, see that you understand 
what he says. Do not be afraid of showing your ignorance 
by asking questions, if need be. 

When you are studying a lesson, be sure to get a clear 
idea of all that the lesson contains. Do not go to your 
teacher for help on any point, if you can possibly get a clear 

K 



146 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

idea by your own efforts. The great object of study is not 
to get information, but to learn to see clearly for one's self. 
So far as a student fails to get his lesson himself, he fails to get 
the benefit which the study of that lesson is designed to give. 

Suppose you are learning to shoot at a mark with a rifle. 
If a friend takes your rifle, and hits the mark a great many 
times, he does not add to your skill. Your object in prac- 
ticing is to get skill in shooting. Your object in studying 
is to get skill in seeing. 

Whatever study you are pursuing, if you pursue it in the 
right way, you are thereby preparing yourself to become a 
writer. We will suppose you are trying to solve a problem 
in arithmetic or algebra. You do not at first see how it is 
to be solved. You keep your attention fixed upon it. A 
method of solving it occurs to you. You try it, and do not 
succeed. You think of another way, perhaps, of several ; 
but none of them is the right one. You keep your atten- 
tion fixed until you think of a method that you are almost, 
perhaps, quite sure will solve the problem. You try it, and 
succeed. 

Do you ask what has this to do with teaching me to write? 
Let us see. A subject is given you for composition— a prop- 
osition which you are to prove. At first, you do not see how 
you can prove it. You fix your attention upon it. An ar- 
gument occurs to you, which you think goes to prove it ; but 
further consideration convinces you that it does not — that it 
is not to the point. You think of another, and that fails. 
You keep your attention fixed on the subject, till finally you 
think of an argument that is to the point. After many in- 
effectual attempts, perhaps you think of another, and others, 
till you have before you the clear proof of the proposition. 
The habits of mind needed to prepare the materials of the 
required composition, are those which the study of the 
problem above noticed was adapted to form. 

As clearness of thought tends to clearness of expression, 
so clearness of expression tends to clearness of thought. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 147 

Whenever you make a statement in recitation, make it in 
the most clear and direct manner. If the proper answer to 
the question is no or yes, say no or yes, and do not use a 
roundabout and, consequently, obscure mode of expression. 
When you are giving information to others, give' it in a 
clear, straightforward manner. 

Authors remarkable for clearness of thought and expres- 
sion should be studied by the young writer. As we insen- 
sibly acquire the manners of those with whom we are 
intimate, so* we insensibly acquire the mental habits of the 
authors whose works we make the subjects of constant study. 



CHAPTER LV. 

CLEARNESS '-Continued. 

We have seen that the fundamental condition of clearness 
of expression, is clearness of thought. Clearness further 
depends upon the choice of words, and the structure of sen- 
tences. One may have a clear thought, yet, if he does not 
select the right words to express it, he may fail to commu- 
nicate it clearly to others. The object of expressing our 
thoughts by the voice and the pen, is to communicate them 
to others. 

In order that one may make a skilful selection of words 
to express his thoughts, he must have an extensive know- 
ledge of words, and of their exact meaning. You may have 
met with a foreigner who knew only a few hundred English 
words. He expressed his thoughts very imperfectly. He 
was obliged to use the same words in expressing different 
ideas. His stock of words was too small to allow of selec- 
tion. 



148 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

The young writer cannot be expected to have a large 
number of words at his command ; but if he be a diligent 
student, he will be adding to the number daily. He should 
keep this object constantly in view. If he is studying a 
lesson in science, he should not only seek to understand the 
truth contained in the lesson, but he should notice the exact 
meaning of each word in the lesson. 

The reading of good authors will increase one's acquaint- 
ance with words. To this end, he must read with care, 
noticing the manner in which words are used. When 
he meets with a word that he is not acquainted with, he can 
commonly educe its meaning from the connection. If he 
cannot, he should refer at once to a dictionary. We can 
often get a more exact idea of the meaning of a word from 
its place in the sentence, than we can get from a formal 
definition. 

The following rule may aid the young writer in selecting 
words to express his thoughts: 

Rule 1. — Select such words as belong to the Eng- 
lish language. 

This rule excludes words belonging to other languages. 
Some writers are fond of sprinkling their pages with foreign 
words. In former times, Latin words were thus used. Now 
the tendency is towards the French. The French words 
emeute, canaille, hauteur, naivete, &c, are sometimes used when 
the corresponding English words would be far better. To 
many readers, the meaning of all such words is unknown. 

This rule excludes all obsolete words. Obsolete words 
are those which were formerly in use, but which are not 
now used by good writers. Erst, quoth, whilom, wist, are ex- 
amples of obsolete words. 

This rule also excludes newly-coined words. New words 
will be added to the language. New discoveries are made, 
and new institutions are formed, which render new words 
absolutely necessary. But every writer must not be allowed 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 149 

to coin new words to suit his fancy. Energize, declinature, 
deputize, philosophism, are examples of newly-coined words 
which have not yet been sanctioned by good use, 

This rule also excludes provincial terms. In every coun- 
try, and in every language, there are words that are used 
only in certain localities. In England, there are words in 
common use in some counties, which are unknown in others. 
The same is true of the United States. There are some 
words in common use in New England, that are unknown at 
the South. . There are fewer provincial terms in use in the 
United States than in England. 

Rule 2. — The writer should select such words 
as, when they are used in their true significa- 
tion, will express his meaning. 

Ifc is possible to use words belonging to the language, and 
yet use them in an improper sense. As there are provincial 
words — words which do not belong to the language— do not 
constitute good English — so there are English words, which 
in some parts of the country,have a provincial signification. 
For example, the true English meaning of the word clever is 
skilful, ingenious. A clever man is a man of good capacity. 
In some parts of the United States, it is used in the sense of 
good-natured. A clever man is a good-natured man. 

Rule 3. — The writer should select simple instead 
of compound words, and Saxon words in 
preference to those of Latin origin. 

Rule 4. — The writer should use individual terms 
in preference to general and abstract terms. 

An individual term is the name of an individual 
object. John, the Tower, the Delaware river, are indi- 
vidual terms. A general term is a word denoting 



150 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

a class or a general truth. Man, tree, truth, are general 
terms. An individual term brings a more distinct idea to 
the mind than a general term does. The Tower of London 
brings a more definite idea before the mind, than a building 
of London does. 

An abstract term is a word which denotes a quality 
viewed apart from the object to which it belongs. Thus, 
roundness is an abstract term. It gives to the mind an idea 
less definite than that given by the words a round ball. Of 
two words or phrases which will express your idea, use that 
which will call up the most definite idea. 

Rule 5. — Avoid the use of technical terms. 

Technical terms are terms peculiar to some science 
or art. There are terms peculiar to the science of chem- 
istry, and the art of navigation, which are understood only 
by the mathematician or the sailor. Hence, they should not 
be used when addressing those ignorant of the meaning of 
such terms. 



CHAPTER LVI. 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 

The structure of a sentence must be determined by the 
thought it is designed to express. If the object be to affirm 
that a certain event has taken place, the sentence will be a 
simple one ; e. g. y " The refinery has been burned." If the 
object be to state a fact and the reason- of it, the sentence 
will consist of two members, the second connected with the 
first by a causal conjunction ; e. g., "John cut down the tree, 
because his father told him to do it." If the object be to 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 151 

state a fact, and the reasons for it, there being several 
reasons, the sentence will consist of the statement and of as 
"many members as there are reasons to be given. The first 
one will be connected with the statement by a causal con- 
junction, and the others will be connected with it and with 
one another, by copulatives. Sometimes the connecting cop- 
ulatives are understood ; e. g., " War should be avoided, be- 
cause it occasions great physical suffering, great pecuniary 
expenditure, and great immorality ." 

"When there are qualifying clauses connected with the 
subject or the predicate, there is danger of obscurity. 

The fundamental rule for the construction of sentences is 
to get a clear and full idea of what you wish to express. 
You may have a general idea of what you wish to express, 
and when you attempt to express it, you find difficulty. 
You say, I can't express my idea. The real difficulty lies 
in the fact that you have not full possession of the idea you 
wish to express. A general idea of something that should 
be said, is not a definite idea ready for expression. 

Having fixed your attention on the thought till you are 
in fall possession of it, the next rule is, to consider in what 
way you shall express it so as to communicate it clearly to 
others. You may so express it, or rather in attempting to 
express it, you may construct a sentence that will seem 
clear to you, but that will not seem clear to others. You 
must remember that you have been looking at the subject 
for a long time. A few words may suggest the thought to 
your mind ; but they may not have the same effect on other 
minds. You must imagine yourself in the place of those 
t© whom you wish to communicate your thoughts, and must 
construct your sentences accordingly. 

In addition to the two fundamental rules that have been 
given, the following should be regarded : 

Rule 1. — Have no more members than are neces- 
sary to express the thought. 



152 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Examples. — As I am all alone to-day, and 

consequently have no one to talk to, I will write 

you a letter. 

In this sentence, the clause, "and consequently have no 
one to talk to," is implied in the first clause. It should, 
therefore, be omitted. 

I received your welcome letter, and was 
pleased to hear from you. 

The last clause of this sentence is implied in the word 
welcome ; hence, it is unnecessary. 

Rule 2. — Have as few qualifying words and 
clauses as possible, and place them as near as 
possible to the words which they qualify. 

Examples. — I received your invitation to 
spend the summer with you, one week ago yes- 
terday. 

The phrase, " one week ago yesterday," modifies the verb 
received, and should be placed as near as possible to that 
verb. The sentence should read thus : " One week ago yes- 
terday, I received your invitation to spend the summer with 
you." 

The island was only separated from the main- 
land by a narrow channel. 

Here the adverb only is so placed as to modify separated. 
What the writer intended to say was that the island was 
separated from the mainland only by a narrow channel. 

Rule 3. — See that every pronoun immediately 
suggests the noun for which it stands. 



ENGLISH LxiXGUAGE. 153 

Examples.— When coming back, we passed 

through the tunnel under the Thames river, 

which is one of the most important structures 

known. 

Here, the relative pronoun, which really relates to tunnel, 
seems to relate to river. The sentence may be corrected 
thus : " This tunnel is one of the most important structures 
known." 

Mary told her sister she w^as very sorry that 

she misunderstood what she said. 

It is impossible to understand, from this sentence, whether 
Mary or her sister misunderstood what was said. The sen- 
tence should be reconstructed thus : Mary said to her sister, 
u I am very sorry that you misunderstood what I said :" or, 
"I am very sorry that I misunderstood what you said/' 

Rule 4. — Do not use a participial phrase which 
does not relate to anything in the sentence. 

Examples.— -At length, glancing up from the 
carpet of flowers, the most beautiful scenery met 
our sight. 

Having crossed the creek, our journey lay 
through a wild but beautiful country. 

In these sentences, the participial phrases, "glancing up 
from the carpet of flowers," and "having crossed the creek," 
have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sen- 
tences. They cannot relate to the subject, and there is 
nothing else for them to relate to. The following is a cor- 
rect form : 9 At length, glancing up from the carpet of 
flowers, we beheld the most beautiful scenery/' " After we 
crossed the creek, our journey lay through a wild but beau- 
tiful country ." 






154 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Rule 5. — Do not express in one sentence thoughts 
not closely connected. 

Example. — Turning in the direction of the 
river, the road passes along the side of some bold, 
rocky hills, near the top of which runs the Boston 
railroad, which is occasionally obstructed by land 
slides, one of which occurred about two years' 
ago, and made sad havoc with the barn and out- 
buildings belonging to an ancient dwelling which 
is built of Holland brick, and has its date upon it. 

The last thoughts in this sentence have no connection with 
those expressed first. Young writers are apt to link 
thoughts together in this way, until they lose sight of what 
they began to say. 

Rule 6. — Do not separate into several sentences^ 
thoughts so closely connected that they should 
be expressed in one. 
Example. — Jack and Thomas lived together. 
Jack was stout. He was short. He was talka- 
tive. He was merry. He could sing like a lark. 
He could dance like a sylph. Thomas was lean. 
He was tall. He was taciturn. He was gloomy. 
He looked upon life as a veritable vale of tears. 
He was displeased with every one who was not 
of the same opinion. 

When thoughts so closely connected assome of these are, 
are separated, the reader is fatigued by reading them. If 
some of these sentences are combined, they will be more 
pleasing. Thus : 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 155 

" Jack and Thomas lived together. Jack was stout, short, 
merry, and talkative. He could sing like a lark, and dance 
like a sylph. Thomas was lean, tall, taciturn/ and gloomy. 
He looked upon life as a veritable vale of tears, and was 
displeased with every one who was not of the same opinion." 

Rule 7. — Do not make one relative clause depend 
upon another. 

Example. — Retract at once those words which 
tend to foster anger and strife, which weary and 
embitter the mind. 

Here, the last clause depends upon the second, which is 
also a relative clause. Sentences complicated in this way 
are weak, and often obscure. 

This rule does not forbid the use of several relative 
clauses depending on the same clause. 

Rule 8. — Do not change the construction of a 
sentence. 

Examples. — We cannot see why a man is less 
culpable for not improving his memory, than for 
the neglect of his judgment. 

The phrases, " for not improving his memory/' and " for 
the neglect of judgment," should be similarly constructed. 
The second should be, " for neglecting his judgment." 

Some of our plans have been interfered with, 

and the failure of some of them was owing to 

our own negligence. 

The members of this~sentence are constructed differently, 
though they refer to the same thing — plans. The verbs are 
in different tenses. They should be in the same tense. The 






156 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

sentence may be constructed thus : " Some of our plans have 
been interfered with, and some of them have failed through 
our own negligence." 

Rule 9. — Be careful in the use of connecting 
words. 

Examples. — I did not go far, and did not 
meet with any accident, for I never do. 

The word for leads us to expect a reason for not meeting 
with any accident on a particular occasion. The clause fol- 
lowing the conjunction gives no such reason. If used at all, 
it should be as an independent sentence. Thus : " I did not 
meet with any accident. I never do meet with any." 

I shall try and keep my mind fixed on the end 
in view. 

Here, the word and is incorrectly used. We try to do 
things. The /writer does not ~ mean, "I shall try, and 
shall keep my mind fixed ; but, " I shall try to keep my 
mind fixed." This misuse of the conjunction is fre- 
quent. 

In the effort to be concise, unpracticed writers sometimes 
leave out words really necessary to accurate expression. 

"We have since visited many places, and found 
many objects of interest. 

Here, the auxiliary verb have is omitted before found. 

It was no wonder the thought of visiting him 
delighted me. 

Here, the conjunction that should be used to introduce the 
dependent clause. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 157 

We soon found a place to eat our dinner. 

Here, the phrase in ichich should be used after place. The 
power to use connecting words correctly, is of great import- 
ance to the writer of English. This power is acquired by 
practice. 

Rule 10. — In a sentence consisting of several 
members, place the least important first. 

Example. — Who murder our wives and chil- 
dren, plunder our dwellings, steal our sheep, and 
rob our potato patches. 

Here, the most important thought is placed first, and the 
least important, placed last. This gives a ludicrous effect 
to the sentence. 



CHAPTER LVIL 
FORCE. 

Force of expression is conditioned on force of thought. 
Mere words cannot give force of expression. Feeble 
thoughts cannot be joined with strong language. Some 
writers collect what they regard as strong words ; but they 
do this to no purpose, unless they have strong thoughts to 
express. Some think they have stated a fact strongly when 
they have stated it in exaggerated terms. But exaggerated 
expression is always feeble expression. 

Strength of mind is necessary to strength of thought, and 
strength of thought, to strength of expression. To be a 
strong writer, one must have a strong mind. How is this 
strength to be gained ? 



158 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Strength of mind, like strength of body, is gained by ex- 
ercise. The blacksmith's arm becomes strong, because he 
strikes hard blows with a heavy hammer. If he were al- 
ways to use a carpet hammer, he would not develop strength 
of arm. 

The mind must be vigorously exercised, in order to gain 
strength. The rule, whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do 
it with thy might, should be obeyed by the young student. 
In order that a study may give the advantage which it is 
adapted to give, it should be vigorously pursued. Easy les- 
sons, or difficult lessons listlessly studied, will not develop 
strength. One of the main objects of study is to develop 
strength. If a study does not require the exercise of strength, 
it will yield but little profit. 

Again, strength of expression is conditioned on strength 
of feeling. When a man is strongly excited, he always ex- 
presses himself with some degree of force. Strong feelings 
seek for direct and forcible expression. 

Some thoughts have a natural connection with feeling : 
other thoughts have no such connection. Force springing 
from feeling cannot be used in expressing thoughts which 
have but little connection with feeling. A mathematical 
proposition should be uttered with calmness. A call to 
arms should be uttered with feeling. 

In learning to write, you should always select sub- 
jects that are interesting to yourself, and you should 
strive to make them interesting to others. You can never 
learn to express yourself with force, by writing on sub- 
jects in which you feel no interest. Having selected an in- 
teresting subject, fix your thoughts upon it exclusively, that 
you may become more and more interested in it. The more 
emotion you can feel in connection with the thoughts you 
are about to express, the more forcible your expression will 
be. 

The rules that have been given for clearness are all ap- 
plicable to strength. Still they are not, as has already been 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 159 

seen, sufficient to secure strength : a thought may be clearly 
and yet feebly expressed. In addition to what has been 
said above, the following rules should be observed : 

Rule 1. — Be as concise as is consistent with the 
full expression of the thought 

It is not required that the fewest words possible should be 
employed. Such a course, even if it did not tend to ob- 
scurity, renders the expressions hard and uninteresting. 

Rule 2. — Do not pay too much attention to 
smoothness of expression. 

Smoothness and elegance are desirable, but they should 
not be sought at the expense of strength. Excessive polish 
of expression is always associated with feebleness. 

Rule 3. — Avoid a complicated and involved struc- 
ture of sentence. 

Such a structure impedes the flow of thought, and lessens 
its force. 



CHAPTER LVIII. 
BEAUTY. 



A beautiful writer is one whose thoughts and expressions 
produce a pleasant effect on the mind of the reader. There 
is a beauty of thought and a beauty of expression. Beauty 
of thought may exist without a correspondent beauty of ex- 
pression ; but beauty of expression cannot exist without 
beauty of thought. You cannot give to dull, coarse thoughts 
a beautiful expression. 



160 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

In order to write with beauty, one must have a capacity 
to perceive and enjoy beauty. All men have not this ca- 
pacity, or have it only in a limited degree. There are 
many beautiful objects in nature, but some do not see their 
beauty. 

Persons who cannot distinguish beautiful objects from 
other objects, cannot distinguish beautiful thoughts from 
other thoughts. In order to write with beauty, one must be 
able to perceive beautiful thoughts. He must develop the 
power of perceiving beauty. 

This power is developed by exercise. The study of 
beauty in nature, in art, and in books, tends to the develop- 
ment of this power. 

Freshness of thought is conducive to beauty. Thoughts 
that are familiar to all, cannot be rendered interesting by 
any mode of expression. Second-hand thoughts and ex- 
pressions are never interesting. They lack the freshness 
that marks thoughts produced from the writer's own mind. 
You may use a thought that has been in other minds ; but it 
makes a great difference whether you think it out for your- 
self or borrow it. 

A part of the beauty of composition depends upon the 
choice of words. Words should be chosen for the purpose 
of giving exact expression to the thought. No words should 
be chosen but those perfectly adapted to this end. Of words 
thus adapted, some are more vivacious and suggestive than 
others. They seem to sparkle on the page. Such words 
should be observed and selected. 

Harmony of language is a source of beauty. Words 
easily uttered, and in which the vowel sounds predominate, 
are pleasant to the ear. Too much attention may be paid 
to smoothness and harmony. It renders the style arti- 
ficial and labored. It tends to feebleness rather than to 
strength. 

A good ear must be one's chief guide in aiming at har- 
monv. Sense should never be sacrificed to sound. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 161 

Figurative language constitutes one of the chief beauties 
of composition. In order to use figures skilfully, one must 
have the power to perceive beautiful analogies. Nearly all 
figures are* founded on analogies. Unless one is skilled in 
perceiving analogies, he can never become a master of im- 
agery. 

The example of those who have been successful in the use 
of figurative language, should be studied. Their figures 
should not be copied, but studied, that similar ones may be 
made. 

In order that a figure may contribute to the beauty of a 
composition, it should seem to be naturally suggested by the 
thought which it is designed to illustrate or adorn. The re- 
semblance should not be too obvious, nor too remote. A figure 
should give to the mind a beautiful image suggested by the 
analogy which had previously escaped our observation. If 
it appears labored and far-fetched, it does not add to the 
beauty of the composition. 

Figures should be kept distinct, and all parts should be in 
keeping. If you call a statesman a pillar of the state, you 
must not make the pillar give advice to the people, or de- 
stroy with a flood the enemies of the nation. 

Figures that are suited to the subject, and constructed cor- 
rectly, are said to be in good taste. A man is said to have 
good taste, when he is a good judge of beauty. 



1G2 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



CHAPTER LIX. 

STYLE. 

Much is said in some books about the formation of a 
good style of writing, as though learning to express one's 
thoughts with clearness, force, and beauty were one thing, 
and the formation of a good style, another. When one has 
learned to expres3 his thoughts with clearness, force, and 
beauty, he has formed a good style. 

If two persons acquire the power of expressing their 
thoughts in this manner, it does not follow that they will 
express their thoughts in exactly the sam*e way. Their 
manner of expressing themselves will be different. Two 
men may walk over the same road at the same time. They 
will not walk in exactly the same manner. 

A man's style is his peculiar manner of expressing his 
thoughts by* means of language. As men's minds differ, 
their styles will differ. 

Hence, there is no best style which is best for every one. 
It would be as impossible to fix upon a style that would fit 
every mind, as it would be to fix upon a coat that would fit 
every body. The style of each one will be determined by 
the structure of his mind, provided he has been trained to 
express his thoughts with clearness, force, and beauty. 

The style of one man will be more compact than that of 
another. No word can be stricken from, a sentence without 
injury to the sense. In no case are two words used to do the 
work which might be done by one. There is no such thing 
as abridging his paragraphs. Such a style marks a close 
and accurate thinker. 



EXGLISH LANGUAGE. 1(33 

The style of another is more flowing and sparkling. The 
thoughts seem to flow spontaneously, and there are none of 
the signs of compression which appear in the case above no- 
ticed. The style is the expression of the writer's habits of 
thought. 

You meet with what you call a hard, dry style. When 
you meet the author of that style, you will not find a genial, 
interesting man. You will find his mind as hard and dry 
as his style. 

You meet with what you call a beautiful or ornamental 
style. You will find the writer's mind to be peculiarly 
fitted to perceive and enjoy beauty. 

One man's style is diffuse, another's concise, another's 
plain, another's elegant ; that is, men's habits of. expression 
differ as their mental habits differ. 

Authors remarkable for the excellence of their style 
should be studied by the young writer. The object should 
be, not simply to copy the peculiarities of any one's style, 
but to develop the idea of excellence. Excellence is, in a 
great measure, the result of insensible imitation. We in- 
sensibly catch something of the habits of thought and of 
expression of the authors with whose works we become fa- 
miliar. 

Many writers who have attained excellence, have selected 
some authors as their models. The young writer will wish 
to know what models he shall select. Let him select such 
authors of acknowledged excellence as are most interesting 
to him — such authors as he especially admires. This admi- 
ration indicates such a degree of mental affinity as will 
render the model influential. 

Different kinds of composition require different kinds of 
style ; that is, different subjects require different kinds of 
treatment. An oration before a popular assembly should 
differ from an argument before a court of justice. A funeral 
oration should differ from the description of a scene of 
amusement. 



164 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A writer who does not suit his mode of treating a subject, 
to the nature of the subject, is said to be wanting in taste. 

The writer should remember that when he is laboring to 
acquire the power of expressing his ideas with clearness, 
force, and beauty, and in a manner suited to the subject, he 
is cultivating his style in the most effectual manner. 



CHAPTER LX. 
HOW TO COMPOSE. 

The comprehensive rule for composing is to get some- 
thing to say, and then to say it. The mode of getting some- 
thing to say is important. It may be taken from books ; but 
that will not be getting it in the right way. A composition 
ought to be something produced by the mind of the writer. 
Expressing the thoughts of other men, will never make one 
a producer of thoughts for one's self. 

The first thing is to get a subject. This is often difficult. 
" I don't know what to write about," is a frequent remark. 
Do not have recourse to lists of subjects published for your 
benefit. Think out a subject for yourself. It is as important 
that you think out a subject, as it is that you should think 
out what you say upon it. One man may furnish you with 
a subject, and another may furnish you with ideas upon it, 
and you may put them on paper ; but that will not be com- 
posing. The great end of writing will not be gained, viz. : 
power of thought and expression. 

You can think out a subject for yourself by trying to do 
so. It may cost effort ; but nothing valuable can be done 
without effort. You may think you have found a good sub- 
ject, but further consideration may convince you that you 
were mistaken. For example, you may think of a propo- 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 165 

sition to be proved. On looking at it, you may be satisfied 
that it is not true, and therefore cannot be proved. In look- 
ing about for a subject, you may think that you see some- 
thing worthy of being said, when you do not; jast as the 
sailor sometimes thinks he sees land when he does not. 

When you set out to write a composition, you should set 
out to do some definite thing. It is the want of this definite 
aim that makes composition irksome. 

Suppose one should say to you, " I am going to take a 
journey." It would, be natural for you to ask him to what 
place he proposed to go. If he should answer, " I have not 
thought of going anywhere in particular, but I am going on 
a journey," and should set out without anything more defi- 
nite before him, you would not regard liim as a wise 
man. 

The case supposed is analogous to the course taken by 
many when they are about to write a composition. They 
purpose to write a composition: what about? perhaps the 
subject chosen is Ambition. If asked, " What do you propose 
to write?" the answer would be, "a composition on Am- 
bition" If asked, " what do you intend to say about it ?" 
the answer might be, " I don't know in particular what I 
shall say, I shall write about Ambition" If he should be- 
gin to write in that state of mind, you would not expect 
much from him. 

He who sets out on a journey, should have a definite idea 
of the place he designs to visit. He who begins to write a 
composition, should have a definite idea of what he intends 
to do. 

Suppose a man says he is going to build. You ask him 
what he is going to build ? He replies, "I don't know; but 
I am going to build." Suppose he begins to collect mate- 
rials before he has decided whether he will build a barn or 
a house, and throws them into a pile. You think him 
a foolish man. He should first make up his mind what 
he will build. Suppose it be a house, then he must decide 



166 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

what kind of house he will build. When he has formed 
a definite plan, he is prepared to begin to collect materials 
for building. 

Some pursue a course similar to that indicated above, in 
regard to composition. Suppose one says, " I am going to 
write a composition on Avarice. 11 He forms no definite 
plan, but sits down and thinks of something relating to 
avarice, and puts it on paper. He then thinks of something 
else, and writes it. He goes on in this way till he thinks 
his composition is long enough, and then stops. He has 
done little more towards writing a composition than the man 
above-mentioned had done towards building, when he had 
a pile of material collected before he knew what he was go- 
ing to build. 

You are not prepared to get thoughts to put on paper, till 
you have formed a definite idea of what you are to do. You 
must have a definite object before you can think with effect; 
that is, you must have something to look at, before you can 
look to any purpose — before you can see anything. Let 
your object be to prove something, or to describe something, 
or to ridicule something ; have a definite object, and then 
you can go to work intelligentlv. Suppose your object is to 
prove a proposition. Suppose the proposition be, " The 
Union will last one hundred years." You now know what 
thoughts to look for. Every fact or consideration that tends 
to prove that the Union will last an hundred years, will suit 
your purpose. You will look for such facts or thoughts. 
If other thoughts occur to you, you will pay no attention to 
them. They may be good thoughts, but they are not to your 
purpose. When a man is in search of brick for his build- 
ing, he does not collect cotton because it falls in his way. 
He must have brick for his building. 

When you have collected materials enough for your pur- 
pose ; that is, when you have reasoned^— thought out enough 
to prove your proposition — your next work is to consider in 
what order they shall be arranged : the question before you 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 167 

will be, how to arrange your materials so as to make the 
truth of the proposition most clear. 

The next thing will be for you to express your arguments 
on paper. Here the rules given in former sections may be 
of service to you. 

When you have your proposition before you, and are 
thinking out the reasons in support of it, they will not 
probably occur to you in the order in which they will finally 
stand in the composition. It may be well for you to note 
them down as they occur to you. You will thus have them 
before your eye, and can then decide in what order they 
shall be presented. It will be well thus to arrange them on 
paper ; that is, to write out an analysis of your composition 
before you proceed to clothe the thoughts in language. 

Suppose, that instead of having it as the object of your 
composition to prove a proposition, your object be to describe 
a landscape ; the question before you will be, " What course 
shall I take that will present to the mind of the reader a 
clear idea or image of the landscape I intend to describe ?" 
You must consider what points will you select, and in what 
order will you present them, in order to make the best de- 
scription. 

By pursuing the course suggested, you will get something 
to say, and will have but little difficulty in saying it. You 
will acquire habits of self-reliance. You will learn to look 
directly at subjects, and see what is true in relation to them. 
You will come to regard books as mere assistants to 
seeing. 

When your composition is finished, every paragraph 
will do its part towards accomplishing the end or object 
cf the composition. Every sentence in a paragraph will 
do its part in constituting that paragraph. Every word 
in a sentence will do its part towards constituting the sen- 
tence. 

I have said nothing about the introduction to a compo- 
sition. The voun^; writer often thinks he must have several 



168 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

sentences as an introduction, whether they introduce any- 
thing or not. 

The object of an introduction is to prepare the way for 
the statement and the description of the subject. If what is 
called an introduction, does not do this, it should not be used. 
If the introductory remarks apply just as well to any other 
subject as to the one before the writer, it is plain that they 
should not be used. 

In arranging the different heads of the composition, they 
should be made distinct, and one should not include another. 
If a writer should say that he would consider the effect of a 
certain thought on the mind, on the reason, and on the con- 
science, he would commit a grave error ; for the first head 
includes the second and third heads. Reason and conscience 
are not something separate from the mind. 

The plans of composition should be various ; but each one 
should have a plan agreeing in all its parts. Till the habit 
of writing according to a plan is formed, the plan best suited 
for practice is that of a definite proposition with reasons 
for it in consecutive order. But every subject is not to be 
treated in that way. The plan of a composition must de- 
pend upon the subject. The young writer must not get the 
idea that every composition must be cast in the same mould. 



CHAPTER LXI. 
CRITICISM. 



To criticise a literary work is to judge respecting the 
merits and defects of that work. The true critic will ap- 
preciate the excellence as well as condemn, the defects of the 
work criticised. 

The faults to be avoided are two-fold — grammatical and 
rhetorical. A sentence may be correct in its grammatical 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 169 

structure, and yet defective in other respects. The words 
may not be rightly used, and the sentences may not be well 
constructed. 

Some verbs are especially liable to misuse. The verbs 
shall and will, lay and lie, sit and set, are of this num- 
ber. 

The verbs shall and will are used with other verbs to in- 
dicate future action. They cannot always be used inter- 
changeably. When used in the first person, shall indicates 
future action not dependent on the will of the speaker : when 
used in the second and the third person, it indicates future 
action dependent on the will of the speaker. Thus we say : 

" If the drought continues, we shall have no 

fruit f 

" I shall not be able to attend the lecture ;" 

" You shall have a new dress soon ;" 

" If you confess your fault, you shall not be 

punished';" 

"He shall not go because he has disobeyed 

me." 

It is incorrect to say, "I will be sick;" "I will be very 
unhappy if I am disappointed;" il I think we will have 
rain ;" because, being sick or disappointed, or having rain, h 
not dependent on our own will. 

When used in the first person, will indicates future action 
dependent on the will of the speaker. It is used to make a 
promise or to express determination. Thus : " I will go," 
is either a promise or an expressed determination to go, not- 
withstanding opposition. 

When used in the second and the third person, will indi- 
cates future action not dependent on the will of the speaker. 
Thus, we say : " If it rains, you will be wet." " He will go 
to-morrow." 



170 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Will should not be used in the first person, to ask a ques- 
tion. We should say, "Shall I do this?" "Shall we go?" 
instead of " Will I do this ?" " W T ill I go ?" 

In giving directions, will is sometimes used instead of 
shall. A man says to his servant, " You will take this letter 
to Mr. Graves, and will wait for an answer." In this case, 
will is used for shall by courtesy. 

When repeating what others have said, we should use the 
verbs will and shall as the speakers have used them. Thus : 

" He says he will be there at four o'clock." 
" She says she is afraid she shall be sick." 

The verbs should and would are used in the same manner 
as shall and will. 

To lay — to He. 

The verb to lay is a transitive verb meaning to place down. 
Its principal parts are, 

Pres. Past. Pres. part, Past part. 

Lay, Laid. Laying, Laid. 

The verb to lie is an intransitive verb meaning to take a 
recumbent posture. Its principal parts are, 

JPres. Past. Pres. part. Past part. 

Lie, Lay. Lying, Lain. 

These verbs are often used inaccurately, the present of to 
lay being used instead of the present of to lie y and the past of 
to lay, instead of the past of to lie. The participles are con- 
fused in the same manner. Thus : 

Do lay down. 

I laid and thought. 

Have you been laying down ? 

It has laid there a long time. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 171 

In these sentences, parts of the verb to lie should be used. 
Thus : 

Do lie down. 

I lay and thought. 

Have you been lying down ? 

It has lain there a long time. 

To sib — to set. 

These verbs are also often used inaccurately. To sit is art 
intransitive, to set } a transitive verb. The principal part3 of 
these verbs are as follows : 



Pres, 


JPast. 


JPres. part. 


JPast part. 


Sit, 


Sat. 


Sitting, 


Sat. 


Set, 


Set. 


Setting, 


Set. 



The verb to set is often incorrectly used instead of the 
verb to sit. Thus : 

"Will you set down ? 
I set there half-an-hour. 
They were setting in the hall. 
When he had set there long enough, he went 
away. 

In these sentences the verb to sit should be used. We 
should say, 

Will you sit down ? 

I scrf'there half-an-hour. 

They were sitting in the hall. 

When he had sat there long enough, he went 

away. 

From what the pupil has learned from the foregoing 
pages, it is thought that he will be able to correct the errors 



172 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

in the following examples. It will be far better for him to 
do it for himself than to have it done for him in the 
book. 

The teacher should give his pupils many other examples 
for correction, and should train the pupil to accurately state 
the faults of a sentence, and to correct them. 

1. Who were you talking with? 

2. Either George or Thomas have to stay at 
home. 

3. It was them that did it. 

4. I did not know it was her. 

5. Do lay down and rest. 

6. The soldiers had laid on the ground all 
night. 

7. It weighed five pound. 

8. He is taller than me, but I am stronger than 
him. 

9. Will you walk in the parlor, and set down ? 

10. The pens are into the box. 

11. Sit the inkstand on the table. 

12. Had I have known it, I could have gone 
yesterday. 

13. He, as well as his friends, were pleased. 

14. He writes very good and neat. 

15. Every person should try to improve their 
mind. 

16. You ought to obey your teacher; hadn't 
you? 

17. Henry he went to the city, and Jane she 
staid to home. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 173 

18. Circumstances alters cases. 

19. Was you there? 

20. I had wrote five letters that day. 
" 21. Let him send you and I. 

22. Let you and I go. 

23. Speak slow and distinct. 

24. Everybody, when they are treated bad, are 
angry. 

25. She felt very unhappily about it. 

26. She looked beautifully. 

27.. Do you like these kind of chairs? 

28. I don't know but what I w T ill go. 

29. He never said nothing about it to no- 
body. 

30. Is your sister to home ? — No : she is to 
school. 

31. Tell me who you mean. 

32. No boy of our town ever reached the age 
of fifteen, but knew something more or less of 
angling. 

33. He is the best writer of all the others. 

34. Of all others, I like her the least. 

35. Each of these men were there. 

36. Neither of the five girls could speak. 

37. The chief business of this place is the 
manufacturing of lumber. 

38. Twelve of us were in company, five of 
which were under fifteen years of age. 

39. I wanted to have gone very much. 



174 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

40. The apples were shook off the tree by the 
wind. 

41. Do you know if Mr. Blake is in town? 

42. There were very few persons there except 
ourselves. 

43. You will not catch the car without you 
run. 

44. James and Albert resemble one another. 

45. I wish I could sing like you do. 

46. Will I parse the words in this sentence? 

47. If I take cold, I will be sick. 

48. "Who should I see but Mary Barton? 

49. I have the satisfaction of knowing that I 
will be prepared for my work. 

50. He said that, if the bank stopped payment, 
he would be a beggar. 

51. I hope we will meet again. 
52.^1 was real disappointed. 

53. The supply of provisions are remarkably 
small. 

54. The summer has not been so hot as we ex- 
pected it to have been. 

55. They could not prevent her name being 
mentioned. 

56. Those sort of speeches do no good. 

57. Such things are too universal to be won- 
dered at. 

58. Their conversation corresponds with their 
appearance. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 175 

59. Such affairs seldom fall into my observa- 
tion. 

60. They died for hunger. 

61. There is a report different to that which 
you have heard. 

62. They have an abhorrence for falsehood. 

63. He is solicitous of a situation. 

64. The exercises will commence by a prayer. 

65. She is too dumb to understand so difficult 
a problem. 

66. I expect your friend did not come yester- 
day. 

67. I did not expect he w r as a thief. 

68. That man's impertinence is very aggra- 
vating. 

69. He donated a handsome house to his son- 
in-law. 

70. This is a preventative of disease. 

71. The discovery of the art of printing has 
multiplied books. 

72. Their quarrel is buried, and I hope it will 
never be resurrected. 

73. Can you tell me where Fll be apt to find 
Mr. Brown ? 

74. Directly I heard his voice I ran out of the 
house. 

75.- When I wrote to my friend for a recom- 
mend, he gave me an invite to come and teach in 
his family. 



176 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

76. Words should be regarded as the means to 
express your thoughts. 

77. The marriage transpired last week, at the 
little village church. 

78. Many years have transpired since my jour- 
ney to the West. 

79. He got a letter yesterday, which so excited 
him that he could not get his lesson. 

80. We shall not go without it is a pleasant 
day. 

81. The wreck of the Atlantic was a fearful 
holocaust. 

82. It is impossible to predicate the result of 
the war. 

83. There is great excitement in this section. 

84. It is time for talking to quit. 

85. He did not sense a word of his lesson. 

86. My friends are stopping at Rome. 

87. Such a course is calculated to do much 
harm. 

88. They are calculating to visit New York. 

89. He was raised in Illinois. 

90. The Greens are a very likely family. 

91 . The observation of rules is rigidly adhered to. 

92. Take half-a-dozen of the apples, and 
empty the balance into the bin. 

93. Do not fellowship with the Wicked . 

94. He is so clever that he delights in doing 
kind deeds. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 177 

95. He knew not which to choose of the many 
alternatives set before him. 

96. This pie is splendid. 

97. There is nice scenery along the Hudson. 

98. We had an elegant time. 

99. That is a very handsome piece of music. 

100. I never saw a more awful bonnet. 

101. He was -very fickle and inconstant: he 
could never settle to any employment. 

102. They ascended up the hill at a rapid 
pace. 

103. The highest faculties of the mind and the 
imagination are brought into use by this study. 

104. Follow after us. 

105. It is clear and obvious that religious wor- 
ship and adoration should be practiced by all 
mankind. 

106. I was much pleased and highly delighted 
to see my friend, who had long been an invalid, 
and had suffered much from continued ill- 
health. 

107. What is the difference between the wise 
and foolish man ? 

108. The old and young were pleased. 

109. He was a great and a good man. 

110. I should like an orange instead of apple. 

111. Such composition is worse than none at 

all ; because it is time wasted, and we are not the 

gainers by it. 

M 



178 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

112. A level carriage road has been construct- 
ed around the lake, which affords a pleasant 
drive. 

113. Rich or poor you have always been my 
friend. 

114. From one window can be seen the Park, 
a beautiful green intersected by walks, and, in the 
centre, there is a platform for the musicians. 

115. We frequently remark the ease with 
which we can remember a discourse, the heads of 
which are clearly defined, and the order carefully 
observed. 

116. We are anxious, so far as it can be done 
with the pen, to make an alliance between what 
is old and new in learning. 

117. When we last met, she said, if possible, 
she would visit me. 

118. Those who went into the cave, on account 
of the heavy rain that had fallen two days' before, 
were unable to go away far. 

119. We watched for the coming of the loco- 
motive with aching eyes. 

120. A small stream of water flowed across the 
cemetery, in which were many fish. 

121. After wandering about for two hours, 
reading the inscriptions on the tombstones, and 
feeling very tired, we turned our steps homeward. 

122. After staying five months, and having 
spent a pleasant winter, she returned home. 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 179 

123. A little further to the east, we beheld the 
stream emptying itself into the mighty ocean ; 
thinking the while how beautiful were the works 
of the Creator. 

124. Now I was not only admiring, but re- 
ceiving instruction from nature. 

125. Passing through the room, the first thing 
that attracts your attention is an odd-looking 
stove. 

126. I am sure you will strive not only to in- 
struct those under your charge mentally, but also 
morally. 

127. Father and mother were very seasick at 
first ; but, after we had been on the water a few 
days, they got used to it. 

128. I have only attended a few of them. 

129. We next visited the prison of St. Mar- 
guerites, noted as being the place where Marshal 
Bazaine was imprisoned and strongly guarded ; 
but, between himself and his wife, concluded not 
to remain, and, therefore, made good his escape, 
while the guard must have had a dose of chloro- 
form or something equally effective ; for he took 
to himself liberty ; and fled to parts unknown, the 
second Sunday in October, choosing a good day 
for a good work. 

130. You would at once apply some lubricat- 
ing fluid to lessen the friction, which would 
cause it to run very smoothly. 



180 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

131. A procession was passing through the 
broad street composed of men with torches and 
red capes on. 

132. The nearest railroad depot is six miles 
distant, from which the mail is daily carried. 

133. Of the vegetable productions of foreign 
countries, there is none of greater value or held 
in higher estimation than that of sugar. 

134. The house stood in the midst of beautiful 
and extensive grounds, with a piazza on three 
sides, an avenue of old oak trees in front, and a 
flower garden where grew the choicest plants, at 
the back. 

135. The object of careful writing is not to in- 
crease the variety of words and phrases, but 
rejecting all that is useless and keeping only that 
which is necessary. 

136. Then my examinations began, which 
were not so difficult as I supposed they would 
be, much to my relief. 

137. We then visited the department where 
they manufacture shoes, and then to the laundry. 

138. On this afternoon, he was feeling very 
unhappy ; for he had been watching other chil- 
dren from the window, playing in front of the 
house. 

139. We reached the city, and found our way 
to the school, where we were received by the 
Principal in his study, which was filled with 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 181 

others who had arrived before us, waiting for 
their turn to come, when they should have as- 
signed to them several places where they might 
obtain board. 

140. On the Speaker's right, are the ministe- 
rial benches rising one behind the other, and are 
occupied by the members of the cabinet and min- 
istry ; on the left, similarly ranged, are the op- 
position. 

141. In the rear of it was stationed one hun- 
dred thousand men who destroyed the beautiful 
groves, and made their barracks more than three 
miles in extent, now occupied by forty thousand 
French soldiers. 

142. Here we see the large variety of fish, 
just as if we were looking. at them at the bottom 
of the sea ; and it is a very curious sight to watch 
their various movements, some of which move 
about by the action of their fins, some by their 
feet, and some without any perceptible motion, 
now appearing near by, then far in the distance. 

143. Mr. Editor: The season of the year has 
arrived when the reportorial pen is wooed by 
many of our first-class institutions to speak of 
commencement commemorations, presentations, 
graduations, and congratulations. 

144. As in the bee-hive, a, certain portion of 
the occupants are known as the workers ; so in 
every community, society, and church, along with 



182 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

many who are mere drones, are others who are 
known by the same title. 

145. Each good deed will become a monument 
to bear us on eagle wings to the skies. 

146. Futurity may bear in its folds some hid- 
den spring from which will issue blessed streams. 

147. A study of this subject should showwhat 
is the becoming spirit for us to cherish while 
groping our way amidst the tragic exposures and 
the gleaming signals of the present state. 

148. "When chilled by overshadowing shapes 
of doubt and terror, fasten your thoughts to 
them, fearlessly follow their direction long enough, 
and you will see their cold, dark outlines melt 
down and vanish in the luminous embrace of 
truth. 

149. "Ready!" sang the engineer. Then a 
tremor flashed through Toy's arm, flickered about 
his wrist a moment, then died upon the throttle ; 
and the great engine, obedient to his touch, an- 
swered with a little thrill of uneasiness, then 
settled to her work, and flattening her broad nose 
like a sleuth-hound on the track, flew like a bird 
out into the darkness. 

150. Truly noble souls drawn into the alarm- 
ing deeps of unwonted earnestness, assured that 
victory and peace wait on the other side, bid the 
portents defiant welcome, and press forward to 
those experiences of spirituality whose inexhaust- 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 183 

ible truth makes the world of matter seem a con- 
temptible bank and shoal of time. 

151. Above me are the Alps, the palaces of 

Nature, whose vast walls 
Have pinnacled in clouds their snowy 
scalps. 

152. Was the hope drunk wherein you dressed 

yourself? 
Hath it slept since ? 

153. The Old Year is going from us. His 
beard is white ; he leans heavily on his staff; his 
wings are drooping ; his flight is almost over. 

154. In time to come, she will only have to 
cast her eye back to this night, when her solo of 
love was caught up and swelled to a wonderful 
anthem, to become again a little white heap of 
bliss. 



184 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER LXII. 
THE POET. 

1. Thou, who wouldst wear the name 

Of poet mid thy brethren of mankind, 
And clothe in words of flame 

Thoughts that shall live within the general 
mind! 
Deem not the framing of a deathless lay 
The pastime of a drowsy summer day. 

2. But gather all thy powers, 

And wreak them on the verse that thou dost 
weave, 
And in thy lonely hours, 

At silent morning or air wakeful eve, 
While the warm current tingles through thy veins, 
Set forth the burning words in fluent strains. 

3. No smooth array of phrase, 

Artfully sought and ordered though it be, 
Which the cold rhymer lays 

Upon his page with languid industry, 
Can wake the listless pulse to livelier speed, 
Or fill with sudden tears the eyes that read. 

4. The secret wouldst thou know 

To touch the heart or fire the blood at will ? 
Let thine own eyes oer'flow ; 

Let thy lips quiver with the passionate thrill ; 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 185 

Seize the great thought, ere yet its power be past, 
And bind, in words, the fleet emotion fast. 

5. Then, should thy verse appear 

Halting and harsh, and all unaptly wrought, 
Touch the crude line with fear, 

Save in the moment of impassioned thought ; 
Then summon back the original glow, and mend 
The strain with rapture that with fire was penned. 

6. Yet let no empty gust 

Of passion find an utterance in thy lay, 
A blast that whirls the dust 

Along the howling street and dies away ; 
But feelings of calm power and mighty sweep 
Like currents journeying through the windless 
deep. 

7. Seek'st thou, in living lays, 

To limn the beauty of the earth and sky? 
Before thine inner gaze 

Let all that beauty in clear vision lie ; 
Look on it with exceeding love, and write 
The words inspired by wonder and delight. 

8. Of tempests wouldst thou sing, 

Or tell of battles ? — make thyself a part 
Of the great tumult ; cling 

To the tossed wreck with terror in thy heart ; 
Scale, with the assaulting host, the rampart's 

height, 
And strike and struggle in the thickest fight. 



186 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

9. So shalt thou frame a lay- 
That haply may endure from age to age, 
And they who read, shall say : 

What witchery hangs upon this poet's page ! 
What art is his the written spells to find 
That sway from mood to mood the willing mind! 

— Wm. C. Bryant. 

Eead the above poem through, and tell what was the object 
of the writer. 

What form of speech do you find in the first line of the 
first stanza ? 

What relation has the part of the sentence beginning with 
who and ending with mind, to Thou f 

State in your own language, the substance of the thought 
contained in the stanza. 

What is meant by " wearing the name of poet ?" 

Is the phrase literal or figurative ? 

What is meant by " clothing thoughts in words of flame ?" 

What figure is used ? 

What is meant by " living within the general mind ?" 

What do the last two lines of the stanza tell ? 

Is the language figurative or literal ? 

Give the direction in literal language. 

Of what two parts does the stanza consist ? 

A. It consists of an address to a person, and a direction, or 
exhortation. 

What figure in the words " a deathless lay ?" 

What is the meaning of " deem ?" 

Why is a summer day said to be drowsy ? 

What figure is used ? 

Do you find any words in this stanza which the author 
would not have used had he been writing prose ? 

What does the second stanza do? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 187 

A. It continues the direction begun in stanza No. 1. 

By what part of speech is it introduced ? 

Show the propriety of the use of the adversative con- 
junction ? 

What is the first direction given ? 

Is the language figurative or literal ? 

Express the thought in literal language. 

A. Rouse yourself to the exertion of your best powers. 

Should the prose writer heed that exhortation ? 

What do lines. third and fourth express? 

Is line fifth to be understood literally or figuratively ? 

What is the meaning of it ? 

A. It means that he should write when under strong ex- 
citement. 

What effect has strong mental excitement oh our command 
of thoughts and words ? 

What does " wreak " mean ? 

W T hy is composing verse spoken of as " weaving ?" 

W T hat figure is used ? 

What figure in " lonely hours," "silent morning," and 
"wakeful eve?" 

What word would be used in prose instead of " eve ?" 

What relation does stanza No. 3 bear to stanza No. 2 ? 

A. It gives a reason why excitement is needed by a writer. 

W T hat does the stanza affirm ? 

A. It affirms that sentences, however polished and well 
constructed, will have no effect if cold or lifeless. 

Is the fifth line literal or figurative ? 

W r hat is meant by "waking the listless pulse to livelier 
speed ?" 

A. Rousing the mind. 

What kind of figure is used ? 

A: Metonymy. The effect of excitement is put for ex- 
citement. Mental excitement causes a quickening of the 
pulse. 

W T hat personification do you find in the last line? 



188 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

What is meant by " a smooth array of phrase ?" 

Is the word " cold " figurative or literal ? 

What does it mean ? 

What does " languid industry" mean ? 

Of what two parts is stanza No. 4 composed ? 

A. A question and an answer. 

W r hat is the question ? 

What is the answer? 

What figures are found in the question ? 

Are lines third and fourth to be taken literally ? 

Express the thought they contain. 

What is the meaning of the last two lines ? 

What is meant by " touching the heart ?" 

What figure in the last two lines ? 

What word in the fifth line is peculiar to poetry? 

What does stanza No. 5 tell ? 

A. It tells what the writer should do next. 

What does the precept given relate to ? 

A. Correction of what has been written. 

When should the correction be made ? 

What is meant by summoning back the " original glow ?" 

What relation has the sixth stanza to the preceding 
stanza ? 

Under what influence has the author told one to write ? 

Under the influence of strong passion. 

What caution is given in this stanza ? 

With which stanza, the fourth or the fifth, is it most closely 
connected ? 

What is the passion disapproved of compared to? 

What is the passion he approves compared to ? 

Point out all the figures in this stanza. 

Of what two parts is stanza No. 7 composed ? 

What is the question ? 

What is the answer ? 

Why is the word limn, here used, better than paint ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 189 

Express in literal language the" thought contained in the 
second and third lines. 

What is meant by "looking on beauty with exceeding 
love?" 

A. Admiring it greatly. 

What good effect from admiration ? 

A. It prompts to the use of choice words. 

Suppose one is incapable of admiring any thing. 

A. Then he cannot write with force and beauty. 

What is the office of stanza No. 8 ? 

A. To tell one how to describe tempests and battles. 

What is the precept given ? 

What is meant by " making one's self a part of the tumult?" 

And by " clinging to the tossed wreck with terror ?" 

And by "scaling the rampart V 9 

Suppose one is unable to form a mental picture of such 
scenes? 

W T hat does the last stanza tell ? 

A, It tells what will follow obedience to the rules given 
above. 

What will follow? 

Is the fourth line figurative ? 

What allusion in the fifth line ? 

Is the sixth line figurative or literal ? 

What does it mean ? 

Do the rules given above apply to prose as well as to poet- 
ical composition ? 



190 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

CHAPTER LXIIL 
SOURCE OF RULES. 

Do some persons learn, without the study of rules, to con- 
duct themselves with politeness ? 

How do they learn ? 

Do the authors of books giving correct rules for behavior, 
originate those rules ? 

Whence do they derive them ? 

If the usages of good society were different, would those 
rules be different ? 

When should attention to polite behavior begin ? 

When should attention to the correct use of language 
begin ? 

Do not some persons who have not studied text-books on 
grammar and rhetoric, speak and write good English ? 

To what is it owing ? 

Are the rules of grammar and of rhetoric originated by 
the authors of treatises on those subjects? 

Whence are they derived? 

If the usages of good writers and speakers had been dif- 
ferent, would the rules have been different ? 

Suppose good writers and speakers used the plural form 
of the verb with the singular form of the noun, would a rule 
" A plural verb is used with a singular noun," be correct ? 

What is the law of language ? 

A, Good use. 

What determines use ? 

A. The practice of the great majority of the best authors. 

Can you always certainly determine whether an author 
belongs to this class or not ? 

Who are to be regarded as the best authors, and as, there- 
fore, having authority ? 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 191 

A. Those who are so regarded by the great majority of 
educated persons. 

What do you study when you study English grammar ? 

A, The English language — facts of the English language. 

Can you study grammar without a text-book ; that is, a 
treatise on grammar ? 

Can you study facts in regard to minerals without a treatise 
on mineralogy ? 

In what way ? 

Of what use is a treatise ? 

A. If facts are accurately recorded in it, we can learn more 
facts in a given time. 

How can you learn, without a grammar, facts of the En- 
glish language ? 

A. By studying the works of English authors. 

Are all the rules of grammar drawn from the practice of 
good writers ? 

What is the subject-matter of study when you study 
grammar ? 

What is the subject-matter of study when you study 
rhetoric ? 

If you study facts in regard to language when you study 
grammar, and facts in regard to language when you study 
rhetoric, are not grammar and rhetoric the same? 

A. W T e do not study the same kind of facts in both cases ? 

Can we draw a distinct dividing line between grammar 
and rhetoric? 
A. We cannot. 

Is it a matter of any consequence ? 

What facts do we need to know ? 

A. Those which will enable us to use the language with 
correctness, clearness, force, and beauty. 

What is the office of a dictionary ? 

A. To give definitions of words. 

Does the author of the dictionary make the meaning of 
the words ? 



192 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

A. He does not : lie only records the meaning. 

Where does he get the meaning ? 

A. From the usage of the best authors. 

What dictionary gives the best definitions . 

A. That which most accurately expresses the meaning of 
words as used by good writers. 

Is that the best dictionary, which contains the greatest num- 
ber of words ? 

What words should a dictionary of the English language 
contain ? 

A. All the words that are sanctioned by good use. 

Are there not many words in common use, which such a 
dictionary would exclude? 

A. There are ; but they are words which should not be used. 

Must no new words be added to a dictionary ? 

A. They should be added when they have received the 
sanction of good use. 

Is it possible to prevent a language from changing ? 

A. It is not; but it is desirable that the changes be as few 
as possible. It. would be a sad thing if, by a change in the 
language, the writings of Milton should become as unintel- 
ligible to the general reader as are those of Chaucer. 



THE END. 



UB^OPCONCS 




POTTER, AINSWOl 



PUBLISHERS OF 




003 238 



230 7 * 



Standard School Books. 



PRIMARY, 

COMMON SCHOOL, 
ACADEMICAL 

AND COLLEGIATE 
TEXT BOOKS. 

Catalogues and Circulars SENT FREE on application. 

CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED, 




POTTER, AINSWORTH & CO., 

S3 & 55 J OHN Street, 
NEW YORK. 




